Lack of Interest on Part of Teacher

CURRENT TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION

 (Lack of Interest on Part of Teacher to motivate students for participation in co-curricular activities)

By Farzana  Bukhari

INTRODUCTION

As like other fields many changes occur in education i.e. now education is not based only on theory but there is also a significant space for practical in it. In simple words we can say that theory means our curriculum or co-curricular activities which make the teaching learning process more effective and interesting. The topic of this research is “Lack of interest on part of teacher to motivate students for participation in co-curricular activities.

Which is on of the main issue in education now a days. The researcher selected two schools from public sector one is GGHS. Tarnab farm and other is GGHS Chamkani

OBJECTIVES:

1)                 To define co-curricular activities.

2)                 To define its advantages and kinds

3)                 To describe important principles of organizing co-curricular activities.

4)                 To know why teachers show lack of interest to motivate students for participation in co-curricular activities.

5)                 To know why teachers like some of co-curricular activities. 

6)                 To find some suggestions in order to solve this issue.

TOOL OF DATA COLLECTION

Researcher has collected data through questionnaire given below

QUESTIONNAIRES

Name:________________________                                     Experience _____________ 

Q1.      Can you mention some of co-curricular activities?

Q2.      Why co-curricular Activities are important to organize at secondary level?

Q3.      Among head master, teacher and student, who play a vital role in organizing these          activities?  

_______________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Q4.      Have these activities any adverse effect on studies of students at secondary level? 

Q5.      Do you think today’s political and economic condition of our country affect these           activities?

Q6.      Following is the list of co-curricular activities. Write the cause of your interest or            lack of interest to motivate the students for participation.

S.No	Co-curricular activities	Cause of interest	Cause of lack of interest
1.	Physical activities a.       Athletics b.      Games
2.	Literary and academic activities a.        Dramatics b.        Debates c.        Scientific club d.        Story and Essay writing
3.	Social service activities a.        Scouting b.        Girl guiding
4.	Civic training activities a.       School/ Bank b.      Student council c.       Assembly Celebrating festivals.
5.	Hobbies Gathering Photography Friendship Toy making
6.	Cultural activities a.       Drawing b.      Painting c.       Folk songs d.      Dancing’ e.       Community activities
7.	Multipurpose activities a.        Excursion and trips b.        Decoration, beatifying schools, Preparation of charts and models.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

DEFINITION:

Pre-school the purpose of education was confined to the teaching of subjects of curriculum. The social activities were regarded as ‘extras’. A weak student had no right to go to the playgrounds or to functions. Gradually, this attitude of hostility changed into that of indifference. These activities were not supervised nor any guidance was given. But now the concept of education has changed. All round development of the child is the theme of new education. Modern education recognizes that when the child comes to the school, he comes in mentally, physically, spiritually, socially and vocationally and a such he must be educated in all of them. Now it is recognized that these activities are valuable media for developing proper attitudes, habits, interests, and ideas among pupils. Because of their importance in education, they have been renamed a co-curricular activities as they form an integral part of the school curriculum in their organization, therefore, need just much care and fore thought.

PRINCIPLES FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES:

1.      Proper integration of co-curricular activities with curricular activities.

2.      Adequate planning

3.      Provision of adequate equipment and accommodation.

4.      Proper distribution of activities among the staff members.

5.      Proper recording of these activities.

6.      Proper control of expenditure

(Arbab Khan Afridi, School Organization)

KINDS OF THE CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES:

The number and kinds of activities to be recognized will depend upon the size and the financial resources of the school, the number and special capacities of the teachers who have to guide and advise pupil, and upon the interest, support and special conditions of the localities in which the schools are situated. Each school will have therefore, to select the form of activity most suitable to its special conditions having regard to the above factors.

Advantages of co-curricular activities:

The values of co-curricular activities are multifarious and important from educational points of view. The various advantages of these activities may be discussed under the following heads.

Physical Advantages

There are many co-curricular activities like games, sports, athletics, scouting, hiking, etc. which are helpful for the growth and development of the body. Many activities provide healthful channel for the superfluous energy of the pupils. They also contribute to the sound health, physical development, vital powers healthful habitats, vocational, efficiency and personal happiness.

Most of the co-curricular activities have immense psychological values. There are many strong instincts in the adolescents and unless they are submitted, these instincts create a large number of psychological problems For example, the gregarious instinct unless directed to fruitful tasks through self government, community work, social service and other group works, might find its expression in student unrest; gang activities and other anti-social activities. All the instincts of self-assertions self-abasement, curiosity, constructiveness acquisitiveness, sex and gregariousness find desirable expression through these co-curricular activities. Rather these activities play an important role in training emotions.

 Academic Value:

Every academic programme should have two aspects. (i) Theoretical, and (ii) practical. Most of the classroom activities today are theoretical in character. Unless they are supported as well as supplemented by practical activities the learning experiences will be lop-slides. Co-curricular activities provide practical experiences adequately. For example, theoretical discussion in geography, social studies, sciences and language studies can be supplemented by learning experience through excursions, library will be more meaningful and lively, if activities like elections for self-students government, mock assembly, etc can be organized in the school effectively.

Social value:

Most of the school activities have social implications. Through the activities which are mostly co-operative in nature call for social traits like co-operation, mutual help, understanding, fellow-feeling, tolerance and sharing responsibility. Pupils learn these traits very easily. They acquire group loyalty to the school, loyalty to the family, loyalty to the nation and loyalty to the world. The specific social activities which provide social training are Scouting Girls, Red Cross, Community Work, Social Service camps, etc.

Aesthetic Value:

It is essential to promote a sense of beauty and appreciation in the pupil. To develop artistic- sensibility, ie. aesthetic — attraction to beauty--- beauty in himself, beauty in the home, beauty in the school or beauty in the environment in general is one of the objectives of education. But, aesthetic sensibility cannot be learn t through text books or speeches, it has to be learnt in life, activities in habits and in conduct. It can not be taught it is caught. That is why, school. should provide adequate opportunities for developing sense of beauty and artistic outlook. Drawing, painting, decoration, toy making, clay modeling, preparation of charts and models not only express, but also develop aesthetic sensibility in the children.

Recreational Value:

Modern culture is evaluated by the criteria of leisure time activities. It is said that one’s culture is known by the way his leisure is used. Unless the students are taught how to utilize their leisure most usefully. They cannot contribute to cultural growth satisfactorily and enjoy their life to the optimum. On the other hand, they may engage themselves in anti-social activities and waste their time and energy in gossiping, gambling, wandering aimlessly reading obscene books and visit if ugly pictures. Therefore, students should be encouraged to participate in arts, symposium, debates, discussions, exhibition games and sports and other hobbies, so that they can learn the methods and means of utilizing their leisure through recreational and creative activities.

The school assembly:

It is a good practice in the progressive schools to begin the day’s work with a morning assembly. On this occasion, the entire school population assembly for a common prayer and then talks from the headmasters or from other teachers. This prayer should be general in character without any denominational reference. Besides, prayer songs, some patriotic songs. may be recited. This occasion is also utilized for making announcements - regarding -they, ‘day’s program particularly competitions, ‘1 celebrations, timetable, etc. Here, the students get themselves familiar with three rules, regulations, ideals and practices of- the school and thus are acquainted, with the community spirit and image, of the school. Some students and teachers’ take the opportunity to announce the local regional national as well as international news.

Debates, Discussions, Seminars and symposia:

With a view to promoting expression intellectual powers, debates, discussions, seminar. and symposia should organized in the school adequately These activities provide pupils with the opportunities of collecting information, organizing, ideas, presenting facts, speaking effectively and conducting before the audience properly The pupils get confidence and speak with the presence of mind, learn, oratory or art of elocution through participation in these activities.

Dramatics:

Dramatics is a playful activity in which both creative expression and artistic imitation combine. As the pupil plays varied roles, he satisfies his internal urge to play and, imitate, ‘Through this activity he expresses himself and funds enjoyment. ‘It, therefore, helps maintaining his mental health and, as ‘such it ‘is of great therapeutic value. It provides opportunities for the release of pent up emotions, for improving speech and other qualities of elocution.

Boy scouting and Girls guides:

Scouting is meant for the boys in the age-group from 11 to 18. every scout takes a solemn oath to obey the scout. Law which consists of ten rules relating to honour, loyalty, obedience, friendliness, courteousness, cheerfulness, usefulness, thrift and cleanliness. He puts on a special uniform and learns the use of ropes and sticks, learns first aid and social service, organizes . camp fires and field trips, learns to lead camp life and to live corporate life and gets himself trained to lead an independent life but, with team spirit. The Girl Guide on the other hand, leas activities like cooking, nursing, singing, drill, social service and first aid..

Educational Travel:

There has been in recent years an increased amount of school travel particularly by senior classes. This travel in some, instances has been made possible by school buses. In some instances the amount of time taken for the trip and the amount of expense involved have been thought to be excessive and the project of the long trip has been abandoned.

Different policies are used for financing such travel. Sometimes a class or club uses funds accumulated through social events, sales of commodities or receipts from an entertainment to offset the charges in part or complete Although the possible “ contributions of planned tours to individual students and to the school they represent rare obvious, care must be’ exercised’ that tour do not require too large expenditures of student and faculty time, energy and money.

School Publication:

The school magazine, newspaper or annual furnishes the means for the other form of literary expression, viz, the written. The school publication provides a natural and powerful motive for practice in the art of written expression. Pupils, who have ideas to express and the desire to share them with others, find in the periodical school publication a natural medium for communication.

Athletic Activities:

Sports, games and athletics should be organized in the school in order to help pupils in the conservation of their health, development of habits, promoting their personality, traits – like alertness, confidence, judgment, co-operation, team spirit and so on. Athletic activities help developing all-round personality of the pupils and train in citizenship qualities. That is why, play grounds is called the cradle of democracy.

(S.M. Shahid, School Administration)

ANALYSIS OF DATA

·        The first question is that: Can you mention some of co-curricular activities/ as the question is not difficult and every teacher know the co-curricular activities but purpose was just to warm up the mind of repliers. The essence of ten answers to this question in which co-curricular activities are mentioned are debates, quiz, programes, dramatics girls guide, story and essay writing sports Naat Competition etc.

·        About the importance of organizing co-curricular activities variety of answers are obtained like 50% teachers expressed their view that these activities are important to organize because it helps in over all development of child and also improve and develop skill of a child, 20% out of them said that it develops managerial quality of a child and also make him more social, 10% replied that these activities make a child active confident and make him able to face any problem. Remaining 20% mention that organization of these activities enable the students to escape from routine of school life. And provides a break and make them fresh. And also create a jolly and friendly atmosphere at school.

Table – 1

S. No.	Views of respondents	%age of respondents
1	It help to improve skills and over all development of children	50
2	It develops managerial quality in a child and make him more social	20
3	These activities make a child active confident and make him able to face any problem	10
4	These activities enable the student to escape from daily routine of school life and make them fresh	20

·        In fact Head master, teacher and students are just like a triangle. Is there any unity required among them for organization of co-curricular activities at secondary level? Most of the answers to this questions are same i.e, 60% f teachers expressed their views that all of three play a vital role in organization of these activities. 20% replied that teacher is just like a bridge between headmaster and student so easily convince the Headmaster to organize co-curricular activities and can motivate students take part in these activities. Remaining 20% thought that as headmaster is all in all so he or she plays vital role in this regard.

Table - 2

S. No.	Views of respondents	%age of respondents
1	All of three play important role in organizing these activities at secondary level	60
2	Teacher play important role who can easily convene headmaster for its organization and student for motivation	20
3	Head master play important role in its organization because in school he or she is all in all	20

·        Question No 4 is that have these activities any adverse effect on studies of students at secondary level? As these activities are very important for the overall development of a child but when a child leave the elementary level of education and enters the secondary level education, he faced to study difficult and lengthy courses. So only 20% favor these activities organization at secondary level. While rest of teachers expressed different views against it. Like 60% said that as coerces at secondary level are more difficult and lengthy so it wastes time of students. The teacher who expressed this view teaches maths English, urdu and science subjects 20% thought that to some extent these activities effect studies.

Table 3

Adverse effect of these activities on studies of student

S. No.	Answers of respondents	%age of respondents
1	These activities have no adverse effect on studies of students at secondary level	20
2	It is wastage of time	60
3	To some extent these activities effect the studies of students	20

·        Question No 5 is that is there any affect of political and economic condition of our country on these activities? All the teacher address this question differently, 30% said that there is no political stability in our country and great fluctuation in prices. So both of these factor like other field also effect these activities. 40% answered the question that as mainly our province and specially Peshawar is target of terrorism. So environment of our province is not favourable for these kind of activities. Remaining 30% claimed that there is no effect of politics and economic on these activities

Table 4

Effect of political and economic crises on these activities

S. No.	Answers of respondents	%age of respondents
1	Political instability and fluctuation of prices effect these  activities organization	30
2	KPK is target of terrorism so environment is not favourable for these activities	40
3	No effect of politics and economy on it	30

·        Question No 6 is based on seven kinds of co-curricular activities. And there are two columns for teachers to expressed their  views why they are interested in these activities and why they are not interested in these activities.

6.1             In table first question is about physical activities i.e. athletics and Games. 70% teachers expressed their views that there are many causes of lack of interest in these activities like there is no enough area for physical activities so teacher can not allow students in games period for playing any game. Because it cause disturbance.  

Secondly courses at secondary level are more difficult and lengthy. So mostly teacher of maths and English utilize this time and teach her subject to students. One of cause is also that now there is no competition of physical activities at district level. And with out competition motivation and struggle for any thing is impossible. As for as athletics is concern . we practice this game at school level. But we cannot motivate a good athlete girl to carry this game at high level because of religious restrictions. So this point discourage the teacher to motivate the student for this game.

30% teachers admit that teacher should try to motivate students for taking part in these activities because through physical activities student learn to face failure and try to improve her self.

6.2             In question number six second part is based on literacy and academic activities. 50% teacher showed lack of interest in science club and dramatics because these activities are time consuming. And there is also lack of cooperation of other staff members. Who do not allow students for preparation of these activities. These activities are to some extent expensive and money consuming. Rest of 50% teachers claimed that these activities are important for developing skills and inner potentialities of students. It helps in improving writing and language power of students. Students learn to cope with others and gain self confidence. Each story have a good lesson in it and student learn more from it.

6.3             In question No. 6 the third co-curricular activity is social services activities. In these activities GGHS concern with girl guiding. 100% of teachers showed lack of interest in this co-curricular activity because in this participant students must visit the guide house.

As  now – a – days safety problem is increasing so teachers avoided to convince or motivate students to take part in girl guiding.

6.4             In question no. 6.4 is about school bank, student council, assembly and celebrating festivals. About school bank and students council all of teachers said that these activities are not common in practice at secondary level. So there is  unawareness about it. In very exceptional case teachers used student counseling. About assembly 100% teachers showed interest they said assembly is useful activity. It helps in religious and moral development. A good source of conveying message to all the students at one time and there is no finance required for it. One important point about assembly is also that it devil manarizm, discipline and unity among students that’s why teachers showed interest in this.

6.5             5^th co-curricular activity is hobbies like gathering, photography friends ship and toy making. As 10% of teachers claimed that these activities are good for developing esthetic sense, make students well behaved but  rest of teachers said that these activities are time consuming, expensive and required more skill full teachers.

6.6             Next co-curricular activities are cultural activities. In cultural activities drawing, painting, fold song dancing and community activities. 100% teachers said that drawing is good co-curricula activity which help student in curricular activities. But as for as painting is concern 100% teachers showed lack of interest because it is a difficult and expernsive activity. It required skill full and trained teacher. And on the other hand as we know in govt schools students are not from rich families so this activity can not introduced in schools. About singing and dancing 100% teachers expressed their views that  these activities are prohibited in Islam that’s why teachers do not motivate students for it. All of teachers also showed lack of interest in community activities. Because in these activities students go out side the school and involve in community activities and teachers do not take responsibility of student in this regard and always try to avoid there kind of co-curricular activities.

6.7             At the end the question is about multipurpose activities. In this first co-curricular activity is excursion and trips and other is beautifying schools, preparation of charts and models, 100% teachers showed lack of interest in tips because now a days there is lack of safety and environment in KPK is not secure. So teachers avoid to plan any trip for students. And funds are not enough or head mistress also avoid to use funds for this purpose. While activity of beautifying school is easily applied in schools at secondary level. And teachers showed their interest in it. Because not expensive and easily manageable activity.

Table – 5

S.No.	Co-curricular activities	Reason of interest	%	Lack of interest	%
1	Physical activities games athletics	Student learn to face failure and try to improve	30	1)     No enough area / cause discipline problem 2)     Waste time 3)     No competition at district level 4)     No future cor athletics religious restriction	70
2	Literary and academic activities	1)        Important for developing skills and inner potentialities 2)        Improve writing 3)        Give confidence to students 4)        Each story give a good and moral lesson	50	1)      Science club and dramatics are time consuming 2)      Lack of co-operation of staff 3)      Expensive	50
3	Social services activities Girls guide			In girls guide participant students must visit guide house. So teachers avoid to motivate students for it in order to escape from taking responsibility of students.	100
4	a)      school/ bank b)     student council c)  Assembly	a+b) Is good for solving personal problems of students. c) Useful activity, religious and moral development source of conveying message, no need of finance.	30% 100%	a) and (b) are not common in practice and unawareness about it.	70%
5	Hobbies a)      gathering b)     photography c)     friendship d)     toy making	Developing esthetic sense and make students Gregarious	10%	Time consuming expensive, required more skillful teachers.	90%
6	Cultural a)                  Activities drawing b)                 Painting c)                 Folk songs d)                 Dancing e)                 Community activities	a) Drawing helps in curricular activities	100%	b)     difficult and expensive required skillful teacher C+D: singing and dancing is prohibited in Islam c)     these activities are usually done outside the school.	100% 100% 100%
7	Multi purposes activities a)      excursion trips b)     Decorating school	b) An easy and interesting task, common in practice	100%	a) Lack of safety, great responsibility, lack of funds	100%

 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

1)     All of the respondent teachers know about the co-curricular activities that are debates, quiz programmes, dramatics girl guide, story and essay writing, sports, and naat competition etc.

2)     Co-curricular activities are important to organize at school level because it develops skills, managerial quality, and confident. I also make a student gregarious. It brings enjoyment in daily life of a student.

3)     As in school head master, teacher and students are just like a triangle. But in organization of co-curricular activities 10% teachers think that all play important role, 90% thinks that teacher play important role and remaining 20% thinks head master is responsible for organizing any kind of activity in school.

4)     These activities are good for over all development of a child but when a child enters secondary level. He study difficult courses. So 40% farour these activities at secondary level while 60% said that these activities waste time of students.

5)     30% claimed that there is no effect of political and economic in stability on organization of these activities. While 40% thinks that political and economic in stability greatly effects the organization of these activities. Remaining 30% said that due to terrorism teachers do not take interest in organization of these activities because lack of security outside the school and psychological disturbance also stop the teachers for his.

6)     Due to lack of area teachers avoid to motivate students for games. Which cause discipline problem in school.

7)     As for as athletics is concerned. There is no bright future for girls in Pakistan and not permitted in Islam.

8)     As scientific claps and dramatics are time and money consuming so most of teaches were not in its favour. Mostly all the teacher show interest in story and essay writing because they think that it can help greatly in co-curricular activities.

9)     As for as social services are concern most of the teacher show lack of interest in girl guide. Because there are visits outside the school in girl guide and teachers are no willing to take any responsibility of students in this regard.

10)All of teachers show interest in school assembly because it is a good source of conveying message. It also helps in imparting and sharing knowledge about religion.

11) In schools the money which is collected from the students in form of fine is used mostly classroom by girls for fulfilling their small requirements and for decorating their class.

But most of the fin and profit canteen is handed over to principal and she used it for school by herself. There is no awareness about student counseling.

12) Most of the hobbies are time consuming and also money consuming. As courses at secondary level are more difficult and lengthy so teacher does not compromise on giving time to co-curricular activities.

13)As a Muslim teaches never  convince for motivate the students for singing or dancing. All of the teachers liked to motivate the students for drawing which is helpful in curricular activities, while they think painting is an expensive activity which required a skillful teacher.

14) In multipurpose activities all of the teacher show lack of interest in picnics and trips because of the insecurity and lack of funds.

15) All the teachers show interest in beautifying school. According to then i is an easy and interesting job which is common in practice.

SUGGESTIONS

1)                 These activities should placed in daily time table.

2)                 If principal assign a teacher the duty of organizing co-curricular activity so he should be given some relaxation for his other curricular activities.

3)              Same like curricular activities principal try his best to appreciate the teacher organizer  in order to encourage him. This appreciation may be inform of any certificate which can be given in annual day of the school.

4)                 Principal should always generously spend funds on organizing there activities. Because when the  teacher organizer does not face any economic problem he take interest in organizing these activities and motivating students.

5)                 Co-operation of the other staff o the school is very important because it encourages the teacher organizer to motivate students for participating in co-curricula activities.

6)                 As there are two grammar period of English and urdu per week. So if a teacher give practice to students in writing stories and essays. He will able to prepare students for story and essay writing competition in advance and can save the time.

7)                 If the area of the school is not enough for sports and during school hours teacher does not allow the students for playing any sports in order to avoid disturbance and discipline problem. If she select the girls for any game. And organize small competitions among them. The suitable time for these competition is after break. At that time other students of school can also be allowed for seeing and enjoying competition this will inspire and encourage other students. To take part in it. And teacher will able to prepare students for any competition at high level.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1)                 A. K Arbab. school organization.

2)                 Mohiyuddin M. Sultan School organization and management

3)                 Ramanna R.K Issues in Ed-Ad.

4)                 Shahid S.M. School organization and administration
http://research-education-edu.blogspot.com/2010/03/class-room-management.html

Philosophy and Education

 Subject matter of the Philosophy Of Education

Is There Really a philosophy Of Education?

by..................................

Introduction:

      In reality, there is a close Relationship between Philosophy of Education. All education is based on philosophical views. Many Philosophies were also educationists. Education always Remained on important area of Investigation for Philosophers. Let us first define both the fields:

Definition of Philosophy:

      Philosophy is a set of, ideas and beliefs about the purpose of man’s life, about the existence of God and about the origin of this surprising world:

Definition of Education:

      Education is a Teaching and Learning Process, which aims at an all-round Development of an Individuals Personality, that his Moral, Social, Religion, Cultural, Intellectual, Physical and Economic Aspects are Polished and Improved.

      From these Definition it is clear that Philosophers are Greatly Interested in the Intellectual, Moral and Social life of Man and Particularly in the education of man. They also Suggest Theories of good life for man. Philosophers have emphasized the Value and Importance of education for the proper Development of man. In their words “ Man becomes a man through education and Training.” Moreover Philosophers Raise many Question with Reference to Education for Example:

Educational Question of Philosophers:

(a)     What constitutes an Educated Man?

(b)    Is Teaching a Science on an Art?

(c)     What is More Important—content or Method?

(d)    What should be an ultimate aim of education?

(e)     Is it right to prepare an individual for the society?

              The purpose of all these questions is to make educationists and planner to think of a sound system of education. Philosophers also discuss the nature of the aims of education, the kind of the curriculum required, the role of the teacher and pupils and suitable teaching methods. The philosophers provide a guide—line to educationists and policy makes of education. As a result of it educational objectives and of teaching methods.

(1) Aims and objectives of Education:

        Long before, in Greece, great Philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle have emphasized on the education of man of determined the aims and objectives of education. According to Socrates, education is to produce a virtues man. Plato  talked  about  four cardinal   virtues to be  developed through  a process of education ,  these are wisdom , courage , self-control  and justice .For Aristotle , education  aims at the development  of body , mind  and soul.

          These views of philosophers provided a guideline for education and educationists elaborated their ideas and presented a large number of aims and objectives. Educationists have put emphasis on an all-round development of individuals.

Personality for this Purpose the Following Aims are presented:

 Intellectual aim will sharpen the thinking power.

Moral aim will develop qualities of character.

Physical aim will keep the body healthy.

Social aim will lead to cooperative life.

Religions aim will develop a love for the creature.

Cultural aim will lead to civilization.

Vocational aim will lead to earning a living by fair means.

Citizenship aim will develop national and international understanding.

Aesthetic aim will develop a love for nature and beauty.

Recreational aim will develop a sense of enjoyment in life.

(2) Curriculum or structure of knowledge:

        Philosophers also discuss the curriculum and the structure of knowledge to be imported for the progress of man.

According to them, the subjects of study should be organized around cognitive functions. It will include sciences, language, literature, maths religion, ethic etc.

Early Greek philosophers talked about seven liberal Arts to be part of curriculum.

It will be based on the study of (I) Astronomy,

(ii) Grammar (iii) Geometry (iv) Logic (v) Mathematics (vi) Music (vii) oratory. (Coral speech) Plato in his books “republic” and “the laws” recommends subjects of study for different stages of man.

Stages               Ages                                      Subjects of study

1-            (7   --- 9 years)         Riding, use of bow and arrow.

2-            (10 --- 17 years)       Games, Gymnastics, Reading, Writing, Music, and literature.

3-           (18 --- 20 years)        Number learning and cadetship.

4-          (21 --- 30 years)        Mathematics and science education.

5-           (31 --- 35 years)        Dialectic   (Logic)

6-           (36 --- 50 years)        Philosophy and Politics.

       Again the guidelines, for philosophers of Educationists provide the kind of Curriculum Required for the Education of man, explain it in detail. The educationists would determine the curriculum for different levels as per man’s ability, aptitude and interest. They talk about elementary level, secondary level and higher level. At elementary level, subjects of general knowledge would be included, (Math’s, language, history, geography, art+ Science). At secondary level, there will be a division of science subjects, Arts subjects of technical subjects. At higher level, there will be specialization in different fields medicine, engineering, agriculture, teaching, forestry, computer etc.

3.                 Methods of Teaching:

The philosophers of from their guidance new educationists discovered methods have also discussed methods of teaching. Philosophers gone great importance to Dialogue or Questioning method. Here, the discussion begins with the raising of questions, thinking on them and discovering the correct answers. Both the teacher of the pupils have to prepare them selves for this four aspects of discussion of dialogue are the following;

1)     Exploration, it means finding a exploring the truth by asking many questions.

2)     Explanation, it means ability to find out facts, collect information and verify the facts

3)     Inference, it is the ability to do logical  reasoning to study facts of draw inference.

4)     Prediction, it is the ability to predict the correct answers on the basis of the collection of information of study. New ideas of concepts are presented.

With the help the guide lines provided by the philosophers, the Educationist have presented many new methods of teaching which would be suitable for different levels. These are the following :

1.     Lecture methods will provide factual knowledge.

2.     Discussion method will fetch many new ideas.

3.     Experimental methods will prove the validity of knowledge.

4.     Activity method will involve pupils in learning situation.

5.     Play way methods will develops interest of the students.

6.     Story-teaching method will correct lessons into stories.

4.                 The role of Teachers of Students.

The role of teachers and students has bee highlighted by Philosophers. They have put stress on teachers to provide true knowledge and that they should be the maker of democracy of should have professional excellence. They should have a through knowledge of the subject matter of come well prepared to the class. Moreover, the students should not be passive listener. They must join in discussion of raise QS.

          The educationists have benefited from the philosophers and have pointed out many characteristics of good teachers. The chief role of the teacher is to build the character of the students. Teacher should present a practical model of polite speech. Teacher should have a balanced personality. They should be dedicated of devoted to teaching. Teacher must teach with interest and should act as a guide for the students.

          The students must be hardworking. They should be obedient of respectful to the teachers. They should read the lesson before hand so that they can participate in discussion. They should be allowed to express their ideas. 

Decision Making

Decision Making

 by Sultan

Decision making is the power to take a step, the step could be positive or negative, or to go forward with a task or backing off from a task. According to Wikipedia “it is the out come of a mental processes (cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives”

It is the power of problem solving by logic, commonsense or knowledge. Normally Human being use logic and commonsense, to reach a decision that help in difficult situation. But in professional or scientific area, decision making is done through knowledge, according to that subject. What are the right steps to do a good decision?

What is the problem?

What are the causes of the problem?

Why is it happening and when it is happening and who to blame for the problem

When one has the answers for these questions, he could easily take decision to the right direction. One should always impartial in decision making process because biasness well effect his decision making power. One should always share the problem with colleagues and ask for their opinion on that matter and then made his own decision.

Test Items Analysis

Test Items Analysis

Definition

•     The analysis of students’ responses to each item on the test is called item analysis.

 

Importance

•     Item analysis data are useful in

•     improving the test,

•     in serving as a basis for class discussion,

•      in diagnosing the students’ strengths and weaknesses, and

•      in increasing the skill of item construction.

 

Item analysis deals with

 

•     1. Item Difficulty

 

•     2.  item Discrimination

 

•     3.  and Effectiveness of distracters

 

Item Analysis Questions

 

•     Does the item discriminate between the good and the poor student?

 

•     2   How difficult is the item?

 

•     3   How effective is each destructor in the item?

 

Steps /procedure of Item Analysis

•     Step1:

 

•      After scoring the test, arrange the test, papers in order, from the highest score to the lowest score.

 

•     Step2:

 

•     Select the 25% percent of the papers with the highest score and call at the High Scoring Group (HSG).

•     Select the same number of papers with the lowest score and the call at Low Scoring Group (LSG).

•     The middle group of papers is not needed in item analysis.

 

Step-3

 

 Prepare Tabulation Sheet

 

Item analysis working Sheet

Item Difficulty

•     Item Difficulty definition

 

•     Item Difficulty Formula

 

•     Item difficulty interpretation

The difficulty of an item is defined as

•     “the percentage of student who got the item right.”

 

Item Difficulty Formula

P =    H + L   (100)

N

        In which

P = index of item difficulty

H = Number of student in the high scoring   Group who got the item right

L =   Number of student in the low scoring     group who got the item right.

N = The total number of students (HSG+LSG)

 

Interpretation of I.D

•     Range = 0-100

 

•     Easy Item = Above 70%

 

•     Moderate (Average)= 30-70%

 

•     Difficult= Below 30 %

 

 

2. Discrimination Power

•     Definition

•     Formula

•     Interpretation

Definition

The ability of the test to differentiate between good (Height Scoring) and poor (Low Scoring) students

Formula of
Discrimination Index

D   =   H  –   L

         N/2

In which

        D = index of discrimination

  H = Number of student in the high scoring Group who got the item right

L = Number of student in the low scoring group who got the item right.

       N = The total number of students in both (HSG+LSG)

 

Example:

•   What is the Index of discrimination  of Item 3 in Above Table?

•                              D   =   H  –   L

•                                     N/2

•                         D    =  7 – 2

•                                    20/2

•                         D    =   0.5   Answer

 

 

Interpretation

•     Range = (+1)---0---(-1)

–   Maximum size          Zero     Minimum Size

 

Interpretation

•     Good Achievement Test should have

 

•     50% of Items = Above o.40

•     40% of Items = 0.40 to 0.20

•     10% of Items = 0.20 to 0.00

•     Zero % Items = Negative

 

Piaget’s Theory

Contribution of Piaget’s Theory In the Field of Education

(Powerpoint Presentation) 

It helps in:

q Providing information on curriculum

   planning in view of the cognitive

   development of children ;

q  Acquainting teachers & parents with the

   thought processes of children at a

   particular level of their maturation &

   chronological age;

Cont

•    Emphasizing the organization of optimal

    conditions for an individual’s learning &

    development in the light of the processes of

    assimilation, accommodation & equilibration;

•    Stressing the importance of the variety of aid

    material & concrete objects ;

•    Emphasizing the need for tailoring the education

    of a child according to the level of functioning of his cognitive structure (Mangal, 2002)

 

Criticism

–  To Piaget’s early motor activities are the basis

   for cognitive growth yet multiply handicapped

    children who have little motor experience in

    infancy show normal cognitive development

    (Cage & Berline, 1991)

–  Piaget claims that children below  the age of

   concrete operations are incapable of logical

   thinking & are ego centric, has been refuted by researchers. It has been established that

   children are to both think logically and show

   concern for the viewpoints of others at very

    early age

–   

–  The claim that child is unable to perform an

   intellectual task like conservation at ages below those specified by Piaget has also been

   questioned. A number of studies have been

   shown that it is possible to train children to

   carry out  not only tasks like conservation but

   also very typical complex formal operations at

   ages below those specified by Piaget “  Not

   only do children understand more than

   previously thought , they also can learn more”

   (Siegler, 1991)

 

 

•   The Piagetian view that thinking proceeds in distinct stages has been seriously challenged. It has been found that cognitive performance at particular ages is usually very inconsistent.

 Estimate of Piaget’s Contribution to Learning

 •    Piaget’s Position on typical problems of learning

•    1.Capacity:

   In a theory such as Piaget’s whereby development rests very largely on maturation ,differences in potential are set atleast in part by native differences. Development may be retarded by unfavorable environment, and advanced, at least to some extent, by more favorable environment.

 •    2. Practice:

•     the essence of practice is active discovery, and passive learning is ineffective, at least in early childhood. Repetitive practice may assist in the learning of some basic information ( figurative ), but it is not the way in which inventive transformation are learned (operative). The role of practice varies with developmental stages.

 •   3. Motivation:  

•    Motivational conceptions are little emphasized,

•    although there is considerable admiration for a

•   position such as Dewey’s that relates interest and

•    effort.The theory of equilibration suggests that the

•   learner desires to reduce his internal conflicts,thus

 

•   keeping his thoughts harmonious .In this , the

•    motivation implications are similar to those of

•   tension reduction theories (homeostasis ), or , in

•   the cognitive sphere, of dissonance reduction

•   (Festinger, 1957)

•   4. Understanding:

•     Understanding is the very aim of operative intelligence, and as a logician, Piaget wants the learner to make rational inferences from givens. The notion of “structure” is basic classifying Piaget’s as a “centralist” theory

•   5. Transfer: 

   As a result of assimilation and accommodation, the growing child can comprehend an increasingly wide sphere of relationships. Although the concept of transfer of training is not focal certainly problems-solving competence is, and this implies generalization of what is learned.

  One of the empirical problems is that of the concurrent emergence of a number of abilities when a new stage is reached.

•   6. Remembering and forgetting:    Very often a test of the firmness of a new acquisition is provided by how well it is retained.

   Inhelder (1969) has devoted a chapter to the problem of memory in relation to intelligence, based on a larger study (Piaget, Inhelder, & Sinclair, 1968). This larger study is reminiscent of the cwork of Bartlett (1932), to whom acknowledgment is made

    It was Bartlett’s contention that memory is productive as well as reproductive, and this is brought out in relation to Piaget’s concept of development.

SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

By Miss Wilayat

                                (Power point presentation)

 

B.F. SKININER  (BIOGRAPHY)

      B.F. Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania (America). He received his B.A. in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York. He was a psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for Social reform and Poet. He served as a Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. He invented his own Philosophy of Science called Radical Behaviorism and founded his own school of experimental research Psychology- the experimental analysis of behavior.

 SKINNER OPERANT CONDITIONING

          The concept of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1938. Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. Skinner chose the term operant to describe the behavior of an organism- the behavior operates on the environment, and the environment in turn operates on the behavior. The consequences are contingent, or dependent, on the organism’s behavior. For Example, a simple operant might be pressing a lever that leads to the delivery of food, the delivery of food is contingent on pressing the lever.

 

THE SKINNER BOX

    Skinner became a staunch supporter of positive consequences to mange behavior. He created colorful demonstrations of this principle to support his view point. For example, he taught Pigeons to play table tennis and navigate torpedoes.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

 REINFORCEMENT

      Reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Reinforcement means “to strengthen”.

POSITIVE + NEGATIVE REINFORCER

    The events which strengthen a response are called reinforcers. Positive Reinforcement occurs when behavioral response, is followed by a pleasant Stimulus that rewards it.

     Here the frequency of response increases because it is followed by a stimulus, as for example the smile increasing talking. The same principle is at work when an animal trainer reaches a dog to “shake hands” by giving it a piece of food when it lifts its paw. In the Skinner box experiment, positive reinforcement is the rat pressing a lever and receiving a food reward.

 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT

            Positive reinforcement can be classified as either primary or secondary reinforcement. The difference between the two focuses on a distinction between in born, unlearned, and learned aspects of behavior. Primary reinforcement involves the use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying that is they do not take any learning on organism’s part to make them pleasurable. Food, water, and sexual satisfaction are primary reinforcers.

          Secondary reinforcement acquires its positive value through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned or conditioned reinforcers. Hundreds of secondary reinforcers characterize our lives. For example, secondary reinforcers include such social situation as getting a pat on the back, praise etc.

 

            Negative Reinforcement occurs when behavioral response is followed by an unpleasant stimulus being removed. Here the frequency of a response increases because the response either removes a stimulus or involves avoiding the stimulus. For example, your father nags at you to clean out the garage. He keeps nagging. Finally you get tired of the nagging and clean out the garage. Your response (cleaning out the garage) removed the unpleasant stimulus (nagging).

 

PUNISHMENT

 

          Punishment is a consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur. In punishment, a negative reinforcer is made contingent upon a response which typically had some prior source of strength. Some early studies by skinner (1938, P. 154) using a mild punisher (the lever slapped upward against the rat’s paw when it was pressed) came to the conclusion that punishment was a relatively ineffective means to produce any permanent change in behavior.

     What are some of the circumstances when punishment might effectively be used?

     Punishment can be considered when positive reinforcement has not been found to work.

 

     When the behavior that is being punished is viewed as more destructive than the punishment itself, then punishment is justified.

     For example, some children engage in a behavior that is dangerous to their well being, such as head banging, Punishment might reduce the behavior, it is always to reinforce an alternative behavior so that undesirable behavior does not replace the punished response (Santrock, 1989).

     Skinner believed that punishment is not especially effective in reducing the frequency of behavior and recommended positive reinforcement techniques as preferable. Punished individuals might learn to suppress the undesirable behavior rather than replace it with something more positive.

     When Punishment is used, desirable as well as well as undesirable behavior might be eliminated. For example, a child might stop interacting with other children altogether if he is slapped for biting another child.

            Negative reinforcement and punishment are easily confused because they both involve aversive or unpleasant stimuli, such as an electric shock or a slap in the face. To keep them straight, negative reinforcement increases the probability a response will occur, whereas punishment decreases the probability a response will occur.

      SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

     In most of life’s experiences, we are not reinforced every time we make a response, a student is not patted on the back each time she solves a problem a golfer, dose not win every tournament she enters.

     Schedules of reinforcement are “time tables” that determine when a response will be reinforced. There are two types of reinforcement schedules.

1. Continuous Reinforcement

    In continuous reinforcement, the desire behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement

     In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. There four schedules of partial reinforcement.

     i.     Fixed-ratio schedules are those where response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of reinforce.

     ii.    Variable-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. The schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of  a reward based on a  variable-ratio schedule.

n    Fixed internal schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule cause high amount of responding near the end of interval, but much slower responding after the delivery of reinforcers.

iv. Variable interval schedules occur when response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.  

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