INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE

By Dr. Sultan Muhammad Khan

Keywords ;  Define Goals, Define Aims, Define Objectives, Define Learning outcomes, Importance of Learning Outcomes, Identifying Behavioral learning outcomes, Importance of instructional objectives, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The cognitive Domain, The affective Domain, The Psycho-motor Domain,

Goals, Aims and Objectives/Learning outcomes

Goals are broad statements that give a general direction to classroom instruction. As they are broad they have the advantage of relating many aspects of society and education. Due to their broad nature, they are achieved after a long time due to; some of the examples of goals can be to make better citizens, to advance humanity. To produce Islamic society. In education system, goals are considered to be the ends that society sets for it.

Aims are narrow as compared to goals; they are the targets to achieve the goals, aims are broader than objectives. They are set by the experts, curriculum planners, and educationists. They give indications about what is to be achieved after the completion of each course or subject? They are long ranged as compared to objectives but narrow if we compare them with the goals.

Simply we can say that aims put the goals into achievable and precise direction goals cannot be achieved without breaking them into achievable from. I.e. the aims. They are in the middle of goals objectives continuum as given in the diagram.

(Aims Goals Continuum)

Objectives/learning outcome                     Aims                                       Goals

                Highly                                    Intermediate                                      Highly

Specific                                                                                                   Broad

Objectives/ learning outcomes are best thought of as the intended outcomes of the process of education. They are highly specific and make the starting point of the above-mentioned continuum to reach the goals. They tell us what the students will be able to achieve as a result of teaching in a specified time i.e. a single class period. The diagram also shows the relation of goals, aims and objectives.

The educational Objectives/learning outcomes are expressions of what a teacher hopes his/her students can accomplish as a result of his/her teaching

These are specific, precise, attainable, measurable and corresponding to each specific teaching – learning activity.

They are formulated by the teachers at the instructional level.

These objectives/learning outcomes are written in a way to cater the individual learning needs of the students.

These objectives are clear and unambiguous description of teacher’s educational expectations of each student in the class.

Writing Behavioral Objectives

·                     Write down a list of general instructional objectives for the unit.

·                     Select the content desired to achieve the objectives of the unit.

·                     Express the instructional objectives describing what the students should perform after completing the unit.

·                     Begin these statements with a verb i.e. define identifies, classify, explain etc.

Importance of Learning Outcomes

Instructional objectives play a key role in the instructional process. When properly stated, they serve as guide for both teaching and learning, communicate the intent of the instruction to others and provide guidelines for evaluating pupil’s learning:

The methods and techniques (materials) of instruction are likely to be most effective and appropriate if we have first decided what types of performance pupils are expected to demonstrate at intended learning outcomes in performance terms is the main function of properly stated instructional objectives. This clarification of what pupils should be learning and how the learning is to be expressed not only aids the teacher but also helps others understand the focus of the instruction

In preparing instructional objectives. It is possible to focus on different aspects of instruction to achieve the learning outcomes. Some teachers prefer to state the objectives in terms of what they are going to do during the instruction e.g. to demonstrate to students how to use microscope.

Though this statement clearly indicates what the teaching activity is, it is less clear concerning the intended learning outcome.

A more desirable way of stating objectives is in terms of what we expect pupil to be able to do at the end of the instruction e.g. to identify the parts of the microscope.

Statement such as these:

a.                   To direct the attention to the pupils

b.                  And the types of performance they are expected to show at the end of instruction.

Thus our focus shifts from:

·                     The teacher to the pupil,  And

·                     From learning experience to the learning outcomes.

This shift in focus makes clear the intent of our students learning. Well-stated outcomes make clear the types of student performance we are willing to accept as evidence that the instruction has been successful.

When viewing instructional objectives in terms of learning outcomes, it is important to keep in mind that we are concerned with the products of learning rather that the process of learning.

Pupil                      Learning experience                                       learning outcomes

                                      (Process)                                                              (Process)

                                Study of cell                                                       knowledge of parts

                                Structure of plants                                          of cell. Skill in lab.

                                                                                                                Using microscope.

                                                                                                                Ability to write accurate

                                                                                                                Reports of scientific

                                                                                                                Observations

Besides, the above-mentioned contributions of learning outcomes in the instruction process, there are certain other advantages of objectives.

Objectives help the teacher in the selection of certain subject matter.

Learning experiences/ activities are selected properly on the basis of learning outcomes.

Teacher can organize various types of activities keeping in view their possible contribution bringing about desirable changes in students behaviors.

Teacher can adopt various techniques in the classroom on the basis of achievements of objectives.

Evaluative procedures are directly linked with the objectives or desired goals.

Identifying Behavioral learning outcomes

                Objectives can be classified as either behavioral or non-behavioral. Behavioral objectives state how the student will behave as a result of instruction. The behaviors are an observable indication that learning has occurred. Examples of behavioral objectives/ learning outcomes are:

The student should be able to:

Identity symbols on a weather map

Describe the procedure to operate Microscope

Define the term energy for contrast,

Here are some non-behavioral objectives

The students should:

·                     Learn scientific names of common animals.

·                     Comprehend the concept of work.

·                     Know how to use the scientific method.

All of the above examples could be objectives for science lesson and they are all stated, in terms of learning results for student. In the first set the specific behaviors have been state, if the student can identify …. Describe…… and define. The second set is a little less clear as to how you will know whether or not the student has learned... Does comprehend... or does know. Are behavioral objectives better that non-behavioral? Here are some advantages and disadvantages of behavioral objectives.

Some of the advantages of behavioral objectives are:

·                     They help the teacher become more precise in his teaching.

·                     They clarify exactly what is expected.

·                     The teacher plans more carefully because he know what performance the students should display after finishing  a lesson, unit, or course of study.

·                     The teacher knows what materials are needed and is able to give more specific help to students in directing them to outside sources of information.

·                     They provide performance criteria for student achievements and accountability for the teacher.

·                     The teacher who prepares behavioral objectives finds them very helpful in evaluation. When preparing paper and pencil tests, the questions can be matched to the objectives and, by deciding on certain criteria of performance, questions can be phrased in such a way that the teacher has precise knowledge of the ability of the student to perform certain tasks.

Some disadvantages of behavioral objectives are

·                     They may tend towards an emphasis on trivial behaviors and ignore important objective4s that are too difficult to define behaviorally.

·                     They may inhibit the teacher’s spontaneity and flexibility.

·                     They may provide a precise measurement of less important behaviors, leaving more important, outcomes unevaluated.

·                     They may be used against teachers who are held accountable for the performance of students who do not learn.

·                     They tend to focus the teacher’s leaving the “Whole picture” unattended.

Importance of instructional objectives

·                     The teacher will have a method by which to measure, at least partially, important objectives not measured in the past.

·                     The teacher and the student will have greater visible evidence that the objectives have been achieved.

·                      The student will experience considerably more freedom in achieving an objective.

·                      The student will feel greater focus and direction on what is important, on what to study for, and on what he will be evaluated.

·                     In the long run, both the teacher and the student will save time and energy.

·                     The student will participate more in his own instruction.

·                     The teacher will feel greater security with this more direct evidence of “teaching effectiveness”

Criteria for determining the Appropriateness of instructional objectives

                The following questions determine the criteria as suggested by Clark.

·                     Does the instructional objective seem relevant to the student?

·                     Does the instructional objective itself provide any motivation for? Or is it at least attractive to the student?

·                     Is the instructional objective appropriate for the needs of the students?

·                     Will the objective be used frequently enough by the student to make its attainment worthwhile?

·                     Can the instructional objective be attained by the student within the time allotted?

·                     Prerequisites been adequately attained?

·                     Does the instructional objective specifically prescribe instructional experiences?

·                     Are facilities available for the attainment of the instructional objective?

·                     Is the instructional objective important enough to justify the staff time and money put in for its attainment?

·                     Can the instructional objective be modified of eliminated over times as it becomes more or less important?

·                     Can the instructional objective be evaluated satisfactorily?

·                     Is the instructional objective consistent with the teacher’s own personal values?

·                     Does the instructional objective appear to be consistent with the school’s philosophy of education? (1. pp27-35)

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

                Taxonomy means to make group or classify. It is a scheme to put certain thing in a particular order. Taxonomy of educational objectives means to put the educational objectives in a particular order. It was first written by Blood B.S and other in 1956 to help teacher’s educationists and curriculum planners in developing a framework to improve learning. Objectives are placed in three classes, i.e. cognitive domain, psychomotor domain and affective domain. The cognitive domain involves knowledge and thinking ranging from simple recall to evaluation.

The psychomotor domain involves motor skills, sensory perception, responding and the development of complex kills in written, verbal and manual forms. The affective domain is reacted to feeling, attitudes, emotions and values of the learner.

A brief description of each of these classes in given below:

The cognitive Domain

                There are various levels of this domain.

·                     Knowledge: the first and lowest level of a cognitive domain, includes the recall of specifics (e.g. that ice is a form of water), structures (e.g. the name of bones in the human body), or scientific processes (e.g. that a control is an important part of an experiment). The knowledge level emphasizes what could be described as memory.

·                     Comprehension: the second level includes translation from one form to anther and interpretation. Examples would be: Drawing a graph of changes from a list of temperatures recorded over period to time, or explaining verbally what is meant by a statement that is expressed in mathematical symbols.

·                     Application: the third level involves breaking down an idea or set of ideas into its various parts and determining the relationship between the parts e.g. determining which statements about an experiment are facts and which are hypotheses, or which factors do and which do not, lead to an unexpected conclusion of an experiment.

·                     Synthesis: The fifth level includes taking parts and putting them together to get conclusion. Other examples would be formulation of a hypothesis to explain why some animals are less active in daytime than at night, and why water usually extinguishes fire.

·                     Evaluation: This, the highest of the size cognitive domains, includes making judgments. An example is the ability to state the drawbacks in analysis of an experiment: another is the ability to evaluate opinions beliefs about pollution, environment, population etc.

The affective Domain

                The second of the three domains in the taxonomy, the affective domain, includes what we commonly call attitudes, values, and appreciation, statements of these objectives usually include such phrases as “developing certain values”. “Stimulating interest”. Acquiring attitudes and developing an on appreciation of the role of various fields of studies in our world.

The affective domain consists of a hierarchy in which each category is more abstract and complex that the previous one.

Receiving: The first and lowest level of the affective domain includes an individual’s awareness of, and attention to, particular phenomena, or values, e.g. recognizing that there is not always sufficient evidence available for drawing a definite conclusion and thus, in accordance with the scientific approach, suspending judgment until sufficient evidence in available: or, on a somewhat deeper level, recognizing when someone is or is not following the practice of suspended judgment

Responding: The second level goes beyond simple’s awareness or attention in making some response to a stimulus or phenomenon. Many objectives concerning the development of interest fall into this category which includes reading about the subjects and engaging in various extracurricular projects or activities. The category extends from compliance with suggestions of engaging in such activates to more voluntary responses that are the result of satisfaction or pleasure experienced by those involved.

Valuing: The third level of the affective domain includes many objectives that have the characteristics of an attitude or belief. The behaviors or performances of the student have consistency or stability that indicates an internalization of and commitment to, certain ideas or values. Many objectives that include reference to development of scientific attitudes belong to this category.

Organization: The fourth level is the building of a system of values. At this level a value is conceptualized or understood in abstract, and conflicts between values are resolved and an interrelationship determined. An example would be verbalizing the value of the suspended judgment that was described in the previous level of the taxonomy and making judgments about the value of following such an approach as compared to forming judgments on the basis of evidence

The Psychomotor Domain

                The Psychomotor objectives are as important as cognitive and affective domain. Their objectives refer to certain manipulating skills that are vital in learning sciences, mathematics and other activity oriented subjects. Such skills are measurement, drawings, making diagrams, making observations, performing experimentation, handling apparatus, making graphs etc.

 A psychomotor domain includes physical manipulation and motor abilities. In skill development subjects, all the processes that are followed in learning lead to acquisition of mastery in one or the other skill. The following table illustrates the taxonomy briefly.   

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum Development Process

By Dr.Sultan Muhammad

    Keywords: Situational analyses in Curriculum Development Process; Formulation of objectives in Curriculum Development Process; Selection of content/Scope and sequence in Curriculum Development Process; Methods/ Strategies/Actives in  Curriculum Development Process; Evolution in Curriculum Development Process;   The judgmental process; The analytical procedure; The consensual procedure;The experimental procedure

An effective programme can only be successful if it is organized properly. Curriculum being a backbone of educational programme, needs proper designing. Tyler points out that, “It is important as a part of comprehensive theory of organization to indicate just what kinds of elements will serve satisfactorily as organizing elements. And in a given curriculum, it is important to identify the particular elements that shall be used (Herrick and Tyler; 1950, P, 64).

            The curriculum process consists mostly of five elements or phases.

3.1 Situational analyses.

3.2 Formulation of objectives.

3.3 Selection of content/Scope and sequence.

3.4 Methods/ Strategies/Actives.

3.5 Evolution.

3.1 Situational Analysis:

In order to follow any procedure of Curriculum Organization, the curriculum planners must know the realities of the situation. The curriculum reflects the traditions, environment and ideals of the people of concern society. The main purpose of education system is to adjust the curriculum to actual needs of the society. Moreover one of the functions of curriculum is to preserve and transmit the cultural heritage. Our cultural heritage is, in large measure, the tradition of our eastern civilization. Our language, our social needs, our political and religious conditions must be considered while developing curriculum. Some important aspects of existing situation are as follows:

1.      Geographical condition of the country.

2.      Religious condition.

3.      Cultural and social needs.

4.      Economical conditions.

5.      Pattern of curriculum to be followed.

6.      National and international trends.

7.      Age, level and interests of the learners.

8.      Teacher training programmers.

9.      System of examinations etc.

The identification of the above mentioned aspects help the planner in the selection of objectives, selection and organization of material (learning) and in suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.

3.2 Formulation of Objectives:

The tasks of curriculum planners have to organize such a curriculum which helps in the achievement of desired broad goals. These goals are primarily concerned with the international or national demands. In order to reach these goals the experts (curriculum planners) have to state the aims which are related to various fields of studies or subject areas. Then the problem arises to move from general aims to specific instructional objectives of the classroom. The objectives are the initial targets to be achieved by the teacher and learner in class-room. The achievement of these objectives ultimately leads the learner to-wards various categories of life activate, such as:

§  Citizenship: Participation in local, national, and world-wide civic, recreational, economic and religious groups.

§  Home responsibilities: helping each other, respecting the elders, rearing children physical health, mental health and other related activities and experiences, such as food, rest, social and individual recreation.

§  Vocational effectiveness: Ability to contribute to the economic assets of society and to be able to earn livelihood.

§  Continued learning: Intellectual and other interests such as ability to read, think, analyses, synthesize and interpret effectively.

It is concluded that the curriculum must be the best possible selection and arrangement of stimuli to experience, which will result in the maximum growth toward that kind of person who will function effectively in the areas indicated by a sound statement of the objectives of education.

a.      Validation of Educational Objectives:

The following general principles are to be kept in view while stating valid objectives for curriculum.

§  Consistency with the ideology of a nation.

§  Fulfillment of basic human needs.

§  Consistency and non-contradiction of educational objectives.

§  Behavioristic interpretation.

§  Consistency with social condition.

§  Democratic ideals/relationship.

1.      Consistency with the ideology of a Nation:

Every nation has got certain ideological system. The ideology of Pakistan is based upon Islam. The educational objectives in our country at all levels must be consistent to the teaching of Islam. The validity of educational objectives in Pakistan largely depends upon their relationship with Quran and Sunnah.

2.      Fulfillment of basic human needs:

Man seeks to maintain himself in a state of equilibrium. The absence of equilibrium gives rise to an impulse for example an imbalance called hunger gives rise to an impulse which becomes channeled in search of food to restore the balance. The thing which is required to restore the equilibrium is termed as need. Although all objectives are based ultimately upon some conception of human needs, there are practical difficulties in using basic needs. Among the basic needs that have be4en identified are food, clothing, shelter etc. The objectives must help in fulfillment of these needs.

3.      Consistency and non-contradiction of education objectives:

Educational objectives must be consistent and non-contradictory with one another. If one objective is logically compatible with another, as teaching, the desirability of obedience in logically compatible with teaching the students how to obey their elders, this relationship is consistent one.

In the same way if there is an objective in relation to inculcate certain Islamic value and at the same time there is another objective which is to develop skill in the system of “Interest” and to apply it in life situation, gives us an example of contradictory objectives.

It is therefore important that the curriculum workers set educational objectives keeping in view their relationships.

4.      Behaviouristic interpretation:

Objectives expressed in terms of student behavior are called as behavioral objectives. To make the objectives valid, clear and achievable, the curriculum planners have to express these objectives as the development of integrated personalities, self realization, economic efficiency, problem solving ability, critical thinking, understanding of rights and responsibilities and appreciations are misunderstood until they are expressed in terms of concrete and meaningful behavior. Objectives that are not put in terms of human behavior are invalid.

5.      Consistency with social conditions:

Since the objectives of an educational programme are derived from the culture, they will always be related in some degree to the social circumstances. In a society that is undergoing little or no change, objectives usually are closely related to conditions as they now are.

However, when a society ideas and practices tend to lag behind new ways of doing things. This is because of the fact that personal contacts are reduced due to advancement of science and development of technology in communication. Mass media of communication has grown. Computers are replacing the manpower. These are new social realities. But the knowledge of the present state of affairs does not necessarily mean that objectives formulated on the basic of these facts will be socially adequate. Curriculum planners sometimes seek to avoid the danger they see in present day society by appealing to ideals and virtues. They believe to be eternal or to belong to a historical period superior to the current one. Hence the curriculum developers have to formulate such type of objectives which are valid with respect to changing needs and those aspects of past culture which they feel essential to preserve as heritage.

6.      Democratic ideals relationship:

It is a well known fact that the democratic system permits the fulfillment of all the basic human needs more completely than any other ideology. Form the practical point of view. Also, the important fact is that the democratic ideology is the only one that can be used in validating educational objectives in Pakistan.

Application of the democratic value system requires that the curriculum planners must relate the objectives with the democratic values and principles. As the principles of democracy are very complex so no condensed statements of these can be used effectively in the validation of educational objectives. If the objectives are based upon critical thinking and effective reasoning, they can have a direct relation with the democratic principal and can also be termed as valid.

3.3 Selection of Content/Scope and Sequence:

Selection of content means the selection of content for a subject. Traditionally, the Principal of complete coverage was dominant. If a subject was to taught in the past, it was to be covered thoroughly.

As knowledge with in each subject field expanded the new topics were inserted into each subject, gradually the number, weight and bulk of content become such that the achievement of total coverage became difficult.

As a result of explosion of knowledge, the principal of coverage was modified by selecting representative content topics from subject fields. Curricula are now constructed in that way. However the basis upon which representative topics are selected, varies from subject to subject. The common principles of subject matter selection are as under:

§  Curriculum organization must assimilate the best information from all sources.

§  The subject matter if offered to the learners, the teachers must have information about psychology of that age group. And if a teacher is teaching chemistry or biology, he must have knowledge and information to integrate these subjects to a life situation.

a.      General Principles of Subject Matter Selection

1.      The course content selected, must be significant in the field of knowledge to which it belongs:

This is principle presupposes programme of studies consisting of specialized courses, with each course being followed by a more advanced course.

2.      The subject matter selected must possess the principle of survival:

Acceptance of the “Old and Tried” in due to the belief that the things that have come up from the past are the product of generations and even centuries of experimentation. If such content is satisfying the aspirations of mankind has been survived in spite of cultural and social changes, it is fulfilling the need of the principle of survival.

3.      The subject matter must have the principle of interest:

If the learners are motivated to learn more, if they take interest to get more and more knowledge in a specific field, it means that the subject matter is interesting and it meets the principle of interest.

4.      The content or subject matter must be utilized:

It means that the knowledge presented in any subject must be utilized in life situation otherwise it will not help in achieving the desired goals.

5.      The course content should contribute to the development of an Islamic society:

The content in each subject should help in the development of true Muslims i.e the subject matter in various fields must equip the learners with the ideals, values and skills required for an Islamic society. There should be no such content which is against our religion. Beside the above mentioned broad principles, there are some more considerations for the curriculum organizers. i.e.

§  Is the subject matter selected on the basis of its possible contribution to the objectives of the relevant course?

§  Is the subject-matter a mean to an end and not an end in itself?

§  Dose the subject matter consist of a variety of physical and mental activities.

§  Is the subject matter helpful in the development of creative abilities?

§  Is the subject-matter divided into various units?

§  Is there a logical sequence in various units of a subject?

§  Dose the subject-matter demand active teaching-learning situation?

b.      Procedure of Content Selection:

There are various procedures adopted for content selection. The most important procedures are:-

1.      The judgmental procedure.

2.      The analytical procedure.

3.      The consensual procedure.

4.      The experimental procedure.

1.      The judgmental procedure:

Since this procedure has not been reduced to a set of techniques, successful use of it depends upon the point of view of the curriculum planner. If he is so occupied with the past that he cannot appreciate the present, nor see its potentialities for the future, the judgment of curriculum planner will hardly lead to the best selection of subject matter, the most objective selection of content by this procedure requires that his interests, knowledge, and ideals rise above special social groups and is according to the common good of people. Actually this procedure demands broad social vision.

2.      The analytical procedure:

The analytical procedure is one of the most widely know method of content selection. It has been closely identified with the criteria of utility. It consists of various techniques which can be followed to collect information regarding subject matter selection. The techniques are:

i.                    Collecting information by conducting interviews.

ii.                  Collecting information with the help of questionnaires.

iii.                Collecting information through documentary analysis.

iv.                Collecting information by observing the performance of people.

3.      The consensual procedures:

It is way of collecting people’s opinion about what they believe the curriculum should be. The results of the consensual procedure are expressed in terms of the number of persons of a particular community who recommend a specific content to be included in the curriculum. The persons whose opinions are to be sought are selected because they are;

§  Outstanding leaders in the fields of industry, business, agriculture etc.

§  Experts and specialists such as physicians, engineers, teachers and artists etc.

§  Representatives of the community the procedure adopted to collect, tabulate and interpret the data is just like the scientific method.

3.4  Methods/Strategies/Activates:

This is the fourth important element of curriculum development process. The achievement of desired objectives depends largely upon the methods adopted in the classroom. This phase includes:

1.      Teacher’s activities.

2.      Student’s activities.

The curriculum planners are supposed to suggest appropriate methods of teaching after suggesting the subject matter. There are various methods of teaching such as lecture, lecture demonstration, problem solving, project, programmed learning etc. All those methods which are based upon teacher’s delivery only, considered to be ineffective. As learning is an active process so innovative approaches are to be followed in order to initiate interest and develop creativeness among the youth.

Bases for Selecting Instructional Methods:

Within this wide array of teaching methods, teachers are faced with the problem of selecting the method or methods which are most suited to a curriculum plan. As it is desirable to use a number of content organizing designs according to the objective, so it is in the selection of instructional methods. Some important guidelines for the selection of instructional methods are given below:

1.      Achievement of objectives:

Achievement of the instructional objectives is the first consideration in planning for teaching. The objectives postulated for a course, activity, or unit of work should therefore be the primary factor in planning instruction. A general objective may be attained by a wide range of teaching methods, but specific objectives for instruction once determined narrow the choices considerably.

2.       Principles of learning:

While selecting a method of instruction the teacher should know the theories and principles of learning which underlie a certain method of instruction. This would help him adapt the method to the individual needs and methods of learning of a larger number of students.

3.      Individual learning styles:

Lee Cronback and Richard Snow believe the most effective learning takes place when the interactive process (teaching) is one that is best suited to the individual student in terms of his learning style. A learning environment that is “optimal for one person is not optimal for another”. The Rand Corporation Study (1971) supports these findings by asserting that “teacher, student, instructional method, and perhaps, other aspects of the educational process interact with each other. Thus a teacher who works well (is effective) with one type of student using one method might be ineffective when working with another method. The effectiveness of a teacher, or method, or whatever varies from one situation to another”.

4.      Self-fulfilling processes and educational stratification

Opinion of the teacher about a student’s abilities or capabilities is based on performance in the classroom, influence the ways in which the teacher will work with the student, both with regard to interactive process (teaching) and the content of instruction. Psychologists believe that children differ in their learning abilities and processes. On the basis of these differentiated, educational processes should also be differentiated. But Cronback and Snow are against this differentiation which is on the basis of contrived tests, observation or past achievement of school programme, and that which results in educational stratification. As B.F Skinner stated “we need to find practices which permit all teachers to teach well and under which all students learn as efficiently as their talents permit”

The only acceptable prophecy that should be self fulfilling among teachers today is that every child has precious talents and potentialities that should be developed to the utmost. The school’s responsibility is to provide the child the opportunities for such development.

5.      Facilities, equipment and resources

Instructional planning is often influenced by the available facilities that may be used, and the administrative organization and structure of the school. Whatever restrictive influence the facilities, equipment and resources may have on the instructional planning, a teacher should be as imaginative and resourceful as possible in using methods that involve student in a highly active role.

6.      Accountability

Teachers, administrators and others employed to provide education have always been held responsible for the quality of their work. In as much as curriculum plans related to accountability.

The accountability means that someone has to report, explain or justify to someone else. Thus accountability is a master servant, employee employer relationship, that is, some party answering another party. It involves assessment, appraisal and evolution whichever is appropriate. It is  a part and parcel of the whole systems approach to educational planning with great emphasis on results, costs of producing these results, and alternative possibilities weighed on the basis of costs. Lossigner observes that we judge a school, or ought to judge it, by whether its students gain certain skills and knowledge that can be measured against some set of students or judgment, and by the cost of producing the gains.

It is also to be kept in view that method is a descriptive term used for the teacher’s actions to present the organized subject matter. Methods are always derived from the nature of such subject matter. Some professionals consider pupil behaviors as the source of methods. According to Shepherd and Regan (1982; p 127).

1.      “Methods are content free and not derived from organized subject matter.

2.         Methods are pupil’s behavior free and are not from organized or unorganized pupil’s behavior. It has been argued that methods are derived from an analysis and application of learning theories. The actions, procedures and manipulations of the teacher are not different during instruction in reading or mathematics but the organized subject matter is different. Method is like a vehicle, which is empty but can carry a variety of subject matter. This vehicle is created and constructed from generalizations, principles and assumptions”.

Some, professionals feel that methods are derived from the personality of the teacher. It seems evident that some teachers are more comfortable with certain methods than others, and this is probably a function of personality. It also seems evident that methods are created, selected and adopted by teachers for purposes of incurring learning. The attention of the teacher is upon the pupil’s learning.

3.5  Evolution:

Assessment of student’s achievement means to evaluate the student’s academic achievement. Evolution system may be defined as the tools, techniques and processing of defining, gathering, displaying and interpreting data relevant to the goals and objectives of the curriculum. An evaluation system contains and yields both a product and a process the product of evolution system is the valid, reliable, and functional date utilized in the decision-making activates. The process of evolution system is the involvement of personnel in the cycle of selecting goals, identifying objectives, defining relevant date, gathering data, displaying data, interpreting data and decision making activates. Evaluation is the quality control of the processes and outcome of educational programme. There are two types of evolution, formative and summative.