Descriptive Research
Focused
towards the present
Gathering
information and describing the current situation
May or may
not involve hypothesis testing
Answers the
question “What is?”
Many types of
research fall within this classification
Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either
quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize
elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research
refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be
applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while
inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect.
The type of question asked by the researcher will ultimately determine
the type of approach necessary to complete an accurate assessment of the topic
at hand. Descriptive studies, primarily concerned with finding out "what
is," might be applied to investigate the following questions:
Do teachers hold favorable attitudes toward using computers in schools?
What is the best way to provide access to computer equipment in
schools?
Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It can
involve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated along a
continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times a
person chooses to use a-certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can
describe categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction
when using technology in a group situation
The methods of collecting data for descriptive research can be employed
singly or in various combinations, depending on the research questions at hand.
Some of the common data collection methods applied to questions within the
realm of descriptive research include surveys, interviews, observations, and
portfolios.
Characteristics of descriptive
research:
- It gathers data from a relatively large number of cases.
- It is essentially cross-sectional, mostly of ‘what exists’ type.
- It is not concerned with the characteristics of individuals but with generalized statistics of the whole population
- It involves clearly define problem and definite objectives, it requires an imaginative planning, a carful analysis and interpretation of data and logical and skillful reporting of the finding.
Types of Descriptive Research
·
Survey
·
Developmental
·
Longitudinal approach
·
Cross-sectional approach
·
Case Study
·
Correlational
·
Normative
·
Observational (a.k.a. qualitative)
·
Action
·
Causal-comparative (a.k.a. ex post facto)
·
Developmental Research
·
Looks at changes in behavior or knowledge across
years
·
Longitudinal designs
·
Cross-sectional designs
The Case Study
Strives for an in-depth understanding of a single situation or phenomenon
A case can be a person, program, institution, project or a concept
Correlational
To determine if a relationship exists between two variables measured on
the same individual
e.g. Age and alcohol consumption; Years in the profession and safety
record
The Normative Survey
Establishes norms for abilities, performances, beliefs and attitudes on
samples of people of different ages, genders and other classifications
AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test
National Children and Youth Fitness Study
Observational
Data consists of observations of people or programs
Can take place over weeks or months
Time consuming
Requires considerable training
Survey Research
Most common type of descriptive research
Tries to ascertain opinions and practices through interviews and
questionnaires
Make comparisons, determine trends, reveals strengths/weaknesses, uses
information for decision-making
Action Research
Conducted in the natural setting where it will be applied
Lacks some control
Results are always true for the setting
Tries to solve a problem specific to the setting
Ex Post Facto Research
“After the fact”
Uses data that have already been collected
Seeks to explain the present by looking at data from the past
Also called “causal-comparative”
e.g. summer camp injury study
Survey Research
o The
most common type of descriptive research
o Involves
determining the views or practices of a group through interviews or
questionnaires
o Administered
by the researcher or through the mail
o Survey
Methods
o Phone
Interview
o Personal
Interviews
o Administered
Questionnaire
o Distributed
Questionnaire
o Telephone
Interviews
o Less
expensive
o Can
work from a central location
o People
more accessible by telephone
o Can
reach a large geographical area
o People
may respond more candidly to sensitive questions by phone
o The
Personal Interview
o More
valid because responses are more reliable
o Greater
percentage of returns
o Interviewer
tends to improve with experience
o Do
not inject your own biases
o To
get good information, you must ask good questions
Steps in Questionnaire Research
1. Determine the objectives
2. Delimit the sample
3. Construct the questionnaire
4. Conduct a pilot study
5. Write the cover letter, if
necessary
6. Send or administer the questionnaire
7. Follow-up(s), if necessary
8. Analyze the results and
prepare the report
Questionnaire Design
Answer these questions before you
start:
o What
do you want to know?
o What
do you want to achieve with the results?
o What
kind of information do you need?
o Knowledge
o Beliefs,
attitudes, opinions
o Behavior
o Attributes
o Types
of questions
o Open-ended
questions
o Why
do you smoke?
o Completion
(Fill-in the-blank)
o How
old were you when you started smoking? ______
o Closed
questions
How many cigarettes a day do you smoke?
a. 1-4
b. 5-10
c. 11-20
d. more than 20
Writing
questions
Think through the use of each question!!
Avoid the use of jargon or abbreviations
Be specific
Use clear wording
Avoid making assumptions
Avoid bias
Avoid double-barreled questions
What is wrong?
Do you exercise regularly?
Did you have a mammogram and a Pap smear last year?
I don’t exercise because I’m lazy.
Agree
Disagree
Men over 40
should have a PSA test every year. Have
you had your PSA test this year?
Formatting
the questionnaire
Begin with an
introduction which includes
Questionnaire’s
purpose
Identification
of the source
Explanation
of how information will be used
Assurance of
confidentiality
First
questions should be easy, not controversial
Arrange the
questions so they flow naturally
Formatting
the questionnaire
Use the same
type of questions and responses throughout a series of questions on a
particular topic
Place
demographic questions at the end of the questionnaire
Give
directions about how to answer
Circle the
number of your choice
Check all
that apply
Use
transitional statements
