Regeneration status of forest trees in Ayubia National Park

 by  Saranjam &  Walayat Shah

   

Regeneration status of forest trees in Ayubia National Park

Abstract

Research study has been conducted to determine the current status of natural regeneration of Conifers and broad leaves trees in the Moist Temperate Zone of Ayubia National Park.

Hundred, fixed area plots having different characteristics of terrain slop, aspects were taken to analyze the impact of free grazing, fodder and fuel wood collection, climatic condition, aspect and forest fire at the growth of natural regeneration of the forest.

 The collective finding shows that the natural regeneration in the entire park is dense, frequent and contiguous. The Pinus wallichiana along with broad leave have high potential in regeneration, pole crops and mother trees. The regeneration density of Pinus wallichiana is 5.3 / hec, Abies pindrow 3.01 / hec, Cedrus deodara 0.73 / hec, Taxus baccata 0.51 / hec and Broad Leaves 5.9 / hec over the total area of the park.

A high number of regeneration has been recorded at the South aspect than the North because of heavy snow fall and sun light variations. The study reveals that there exist close relationship of slope and regeneration i.e. high numbers 60.77 % exist on Gentle, 25.24 % and 13.98 % found at steep and Normal slopes respectively.  

 The overall discussion show that the natural regeneration of Ayubia National Park is good but still it confronted to various surrounded factors of human beings such as fuel wood collection, trampling, grazing and natural hazards which contributing to the considerable loss of regeneration, that could be easily removed by applying the recommended suggestion to improve the existence regeneration status of ANP. 

  Table of Contents

S.No	Title	Page No
*	List of Abbreviations	i
**	Acknowledgement	ii
***	Abstract	iii
****	Chapters
1	Introduction 1.1     Topography and Climate 1.2     Surrounding settlement  1.3     Fauna of the park 1.4     Vegetation of the Park 1.5     Objectives of the study 1.6     Justification	1
2	Literature Review	5
3	Methodology 3.1   Methodology 3.1.1     Area of plots 3.1.2     Distribution pattern of sampling plots 3.1.3     Fixed point sampling technique 3.2       Materials 3.3   Regeneration measurement standards 3.4   Questionnaire survey 3.5   Personal observation 3.6   Circumference of Pole crops & Mother trees 3.7   Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) 3.8   Data analysis	8
4	Results and Discussions 4.1   Regeneration status 4.2   Comparison of regeneration density (/hec) with the densities of Pole crops and Mother trees 4.3   Correlation of aspect and regeneration 4.4   Slope and regeneration 4.5   Threats to trees in ANP	12
5	Conclusion and recommendations	18
6	Annexure -1	21
7	Annexure -2	29
8	References	32

Chapter # 1

INTRODUCTION

Water is the main source for the survival of life in the ecosystem. Like other resources, nature has created a balance between its various forms for its better utilization and for the continuity of normal hydrological cycle. Water after use is recycled by nature through various stages to a form in which, it can be used by human being (Peavey et al, 1885).

Every action relevant to any type of developmental achievements will need the availability of sufficient and in-time amount of water. The most important use of water at the moment in Pakistan is for agriculture. However, as the society develops, human consumption and industrial requirements would also have substantial claim on this precious resource. The water scarcity problems grew in variety, complexity and urgency with time and increase in human population with the rapid industrialization. The growing demands for additional water raised an intense need for the establishment of a new branch of knowledge, the Watershed Management (Arifeen et al, 2004). Watershed can be defined as a “Land mass which drains into a stream system, delineated by a circumscribing boundary called the divide and has an outlet which is either the mouth of stream, or a measuring point, or other designed point of interest” (Lee, 1980).

Watershed management has important to all types of land uses such as settlements, cultivated, non-cultivated, forest and range for the provision of fresh water, minimizing the loss of soil, flood hazards and siltation of productive lands and dams. Infiltration is the movement of water into the soil surface. The number of the pores and water contents are the most important factors determining the part of the precipitation that infiltrate and the amount of runoff produced. High infiltration rates, therefore not only increase the amount of water stored in the soil for plant use but also reduce flood threats and erosion resulting from runoff. Vegetation enhances infiltration in a number of ways. Presence of litters and humus layer lowers surface runoff. Interception of rainfall increases the duration of effective precipitation. Crumb or aggregated structure, which is essential for high infiltration, is maintained by vegetation (Hussain, 2007).

The loss of vegetation cover on the one hand has resulted in the degradation of habitats of various plant and animal species and on the other, posed serious threats to the already degraded watersheds.

The most valuable and important forest type in Pakistan is the Moist Temperate Forests, covering an area of 1.959 million-hectare. In past those forest were considered as the main source of timber and fuel wood, but very little attention has been paid to their services towards conservation of soil and water, control of floods, prevention of siltation of water reservoirs and provision of recreational spots (Ziab, 2006).

The study area Miandam is the best representative of Moist Temperate Forest in Pakistan with a high diversity of vulnerable plant and animal species. The forests of Miandam are being cut ruthlessly. Last year 2.62 million ft of wood has been extracted from the forests of Miandam, the impacts of which are visible in the form of more and frequent flashfloods, loss of soil, reduced productivity of agricultural land and reduction in fresh water sources.  Being closely linked to livelihood opportunities the process of depletion may ultimately increase the poverty, which will be further sustained by reduction in tourism, which is a source of revenue for many local (Hussain, 2006).  

1.1       Scope of the Study

So for sufficient work has been carried out to find the chemical properties of water in relation to plant growth. But very little attention has been paid to the physical characteristics of, important from vegetation cover point of view, in Pakistan. This study was therefore designed to determine, the impact of different categories of vegetation on quality and quantity of water through change in sediment load and sustainability in flow of water in streams.

Based on the comprehensive and required information collected, three major streams were selected i.e. Gujaroo Khawar, Kaldar Khawar and Sapronoo/swatoo Khawar. The vegetation density of watersheds of Gujaroo, Kaldar and Sapronoo Khawar is high (>60% canopy cover), moderate (30– 60% cover) and low (<30 all="" and="" arch-="" canopy="" collected="" cover="" data="" determine="" different="" from="" hydrological="" impact="" in="" load="" may="" of="" on="" ov-feb="" periodically="" respectively.="" response="" seasons="" sediment="" span="" spring="" streams="" summer="" the="" three="" to="" une-sept="" vegetation="" were="" winter="">

1.2       Objectives of the study

1.    Analyzing the impact of deforestation and land use pattern on seasonal variation in discharge and water suspended and dissolved contents.

1.3       Methodology

As the study based on the comparison of three seasons, for this purpose, in the study area three watersheds of different vegetation zone such as high vegetation zone(>60%),moderate vegetation  zone (30-60%) and low vegetation zone (<30 .="" selected="" span="" style="mso-spacerun: yes;" were=""> The water quality and quantity of these khwars were then analyzed.

For the quality, the water samples were collected from the three khwars in three different seasons of winter, spring and summer and analyzed for various parameters in labortry

For the determination of quantity, the discharge formulae were used and measured at the spot. The formula used were “velocity * cross section area of stream”.

1.4       Findings

The major findings of the study are

·    The results of three seasons show a little variation in the quality and quantity of the three water khwars.

·    It is clear that there is no direct impact of seasons at the water quality and quantity.

·    A strong correlation was observed between vegetation cover and water sediment load.

·    From the water quality analysis it is cleared that the downstream water are majorly polluted from the different land use activities carried in the upper watersheds.

·    It is also observed that the vegetation play a significant role in the control of water stream flow.

Chapter # 2

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

2.1       Physiography

Miandam is located in the North east of swat district and lies between 34⁰-34 to 35⁰-07 N latitude and 72⁰-36 to 73⁰-35 E longitudes in Hindukush mountain range (Hussain et al, 2006). The valley comprises of 5 villages that is Jukhtai, Barham patai, saney, khair abad and Miandam with high altitudinal variation ranges from 1310 meters at Fateh pur tehsil to 3800 meter at Ghogalo sar, being the highest peak of the valley (Gul, et al ,2005-06). The population of the area about 20529, mostly dependent upon agriculture, forest and livestock raring. The total area of the valley 6949 ha. The valley has some influence of monsoon while the precipitation is mainly received during winter and spring in the form of snow. Snow accumulation varies from 2 ft to 10ft depending on elevation (Hussain et al, 2006).

2.2       Climatology

The climate of the study area is cooled. In summer it is pleasant and in winter it is much cooled and temperature falls below the freezing point. Summer temperature of 10-25 ⁰C give way to lush green meadows and thick green forests of pines. The annual precipitation ranges from 1000 to 1250 mm with dry spells in May, June, November and December. The lower part receives rain while the upper parts receive heavy snowfall (2-3m) from January to late April (Ziab, 2005).

2.3       Rocks and soil

According to the Department of Geology University of Peshawar the study area comprises upper swat hornblendic group geological formation. It is rocks ranges in composition amphibole, shists, gneisses, diorites, quartz and norite. The soil derive from the disintegration and decomposition of parent rocks, varies from in plate area and comparatively shallow in steep locality. The soil is generally fertile and is mostly suitable for tree growth and agriculture.

Flora and vegetation in the valley has moist temperate environment and varies climatically in different parts because of variation in altitude and exposure to sun. The total floral species identified in Miandam valley about 300. In which 190 are the medicinal plants species, 29 vegetable species, 28 fodder, 15 wild fruit species, 11 fuel wood and 8 are considered the heavy timber species in the vegetation of the area. Out of the 190 medicinal plants 27 are endangered, 13 are rare and 10 are vulnerable species in the area (Adnan, 2006).

2.4       Hydrology

Miandam valley is the largest watershed, which gave the area of 70 km². The watershed of Miandam valley having 4388 ha forest area in which 40% is covered with coniferous forest. Large part of the area is rainfed only stream is the Miandam khwar feeding whole of the area. The Miandam khwar is accumulated the entire water of the valley contributed by the small khwars in which some are Mosa khwar, Kaldar khwar, Shonga khwar, Gujaroo khwar and  Saproona khwar which are originating from different sites of watersheds ridges of the valley (Gul et al, 2005-06).

The study area covered three watersheds of Gujaroo, Kaldar and Swatoo khwars.

2.5       Land use pattern

The main land uses of the area are forest, pasture/meadows and agriculture.

2.5.1    Forest

Forest has always been recognized as a rich reservoir of precious genetic and organic resources. The valley occupied the phytogeographic position in the Sino Japanese belt. The forests have covered 4388 ha area in the valley. The potential forest types of the study area are

 I.      Dry oak forest (Quercus baloot)

 Patches of oak forest comprising Quercus baloot, Quercus incana and Quercus dialatat occurring in the study area. The trees are heavily cut and looped for wood and fodder.

II.      Low level Blue pines (pinus wallachiana forest)

  Low level blue pine forest occurs from 1500-2500m elevation in the study area. The component of the tree canopy is blue pines. It is associated with alnus nitata, ficus species, juglanas rigia and Quercus anana, the under growth comprises of Ber Beries, lyceum, cenabies sitva, indigofera species and vibernam nervosium

III.      Upper West Himalayan Fir Forest

It is mainly comprising of silver fir (abies pindrow) with scattered spruce, (picea smithiana), blue pine and taxus buccata. It extends from 2400 meters elevations. The forest of Miandam valley is illicitly cutting for fuel wood and the timber are mostly smuggled (Ziab, 2005).

One of the major threats to the forest is heavily deforestation. The main affected trees species are the blue pine and Himalayan Yew, for timber and oaks for fuel wood (Gul et al, 2005-06). A social survey found that the last 30 years about the 60% of the forest area has been deforested. Average rate of deforestation thus calculated in the last 30 years is 2% per year. It is assumed that deforestation at this rate would take about 20 more years for complete deforestation of the Miandam valley.

Free grazing is another major problem for the rehabilitation of forests by hindering natural regeneration. In most of the grazing area the vegetation are depleted and transformed into agriculture land (Adnan, 2006).

2.5.2    Meadows and Grazing

The pastures/meadows occur above tree line that in i.e. 3000m above sea level. These pastures are summer grazing lands and provide nutrition feed to livestock and some wildlife species.  The pastures are locally called Kandao or Banda (Hussain etal, 2006).

However season long continue free fodder and fuel wood collection leading to the depletion on the resource base of the area. 70% of the village’s livestock grazed freely in summer season at upland pasture (Section B-8). Moreover about 100 nomads each year carry 40000 goats to pasture for which they pay to the owner of the pasture. They remain there for the summer season starting from march-April to Oct-Nov. Data of swat forest range management plan shows that a total of 40 ha. of forest land converted into agricultural land.  (Adnan, 2006)

2.5.3    Agriculture:

The agriculture covered 1719 ha. area in the valley in which 638 ha. is irrigated agriculture area and 1081 ha. is unirrigated agriculture area (mean rained area). Agriculture fields are mostly made on slope where the growing crops are maize (in Harif), wheat (Rabbi) where as potatoes, onion and tomato are grown in irrigated land in the plain or lower position. The agriculture crops production is not sufficient to meet the local needs hence most of the wood community is purchased from other parts of NWFP. Fruit trees like persimmon, apples, apricots, peaches and plum are planted on small scale (Ziab, 2005).

2.6       Livestock:

Livestock and farming are independent. Every household keep livestock for dairy products and farming. The major livestock raised in the valley are sheep, and goats with some cattle and donkeys. The donkeys and horses are kept backcaring animals. Sheep and goats are herded together, cows and buffalos used for milking purposed. One pair of bullocks and one buffalo and cow is ideal number of livestock in each household. The grassland surrounds the purpose of grazing ground for the local livestock (Gul et al, 2005).

2.7       Social and political geography:

The population mainly comprises of Gujars, Swates, Pukhtoons, Miagans and Mulyans. Gujars are purchased land owners while Ajars with their sheeps and goat flocks stay for short duration during to and from movements between Bunner and upland of Kohistan. A house is a basic unit of economic and social life. Household maintain its and an independent and economic unit occupies. Its member works together, may cook jointly and posses a formal male head. The landless usually have elementary families; while the relatively bigger land owners mostly have nucleated families. The formal head represents the house. All the members of the family are obliged to follow the decision taken by the head. All the groups have equal status and shares each other sorrows and happiness. And the majority situation inter married are allowed. All speak one language, Pushto and follow one religion sect “Al-sunnat wal-jummat” (Waseem, 2005).

2.8       Professional and source of income:

The local community mainly depend on agriculture, very few in services sectors, surveying for their livelihood. Majority of the community is involved in laboring abroad and doing small scale business. The laboring is generally in hotels, agricultures, and timber extraction. According to a study conducted by Malakand Rural Development Project, in 1999, nearly 51percent of annual income of household in the area comes from agriculture, 20 percent from wages and salary, 17 percent from foreign and domestic remittances and remaining 12 percent from forest and its products. The main forest products are timber wood, livestock products, fine needles, morals, wild honey, wild fruits, fodder and medicinal plants etc.   (MRDP, 1999)

2.9       Wildlife

The valley was once a center of wildlife. The old people told about the previous availability of wildlife. Presently the occurrence and distribution of wildlife is very scare. The reason is population growth in turn stressed upon the forest resources through cutting of trees and timber extraction results the habitat degradation. Wildlife present in the valley is monkey, jackals, foxes, wolves, wildgoat and black bear. The population of black bear is very rare and counted as the neglected while the Ramosai (wildgoat) population is almost extinct.

Variety of bird’s diversity represents the valley, providing the strong avifaunal strength to the valley. Some of the important avifauna of the valley is represented by see-see, cockhlas, taroo and morals .The ruthless exploitation habitat and unchecked hunt stressed the avifaunal distribution, which is facing by threats of populations reduction. (Waseem, 2005)

Chapter # 3           

LITERATURE REVIEW

Colaman, (1953) stated that man himself has entered the water yielding lands and a number of his activities there have been affected water yield. Forest have been cut, burn, and cleared. Over vast areas cultivatable plants replace native vegetation, and tillage has created a new kind of soil. A considerable part of the sediment load, silt and soil nutrients of stream comes directly from the erosion of watershed lands; there exist a great variation in the water quality and large volume of water and runoff exists in the stream cause flash flooding. They described that the net effect of vegetation is to slow the movement of surface flowing water, providing longer periods for infiltration, less opportunity for concentration in rills, and decrease power to cause erosion’. They also argued the vegetative aspects of water yield control are necessary rather different from the engineering structural works.

Khan, (1964-A) surveyed the various land uses in the Jhelum watershed and in its major tributaries. They studied the Kanshi tributary of the Jhelum and specified that it contributes its water yields and heavy amount of silt load in the Jhelum because of the entire track which constitutes the watersheds of Kanshi in almost bare and doesn’t sustain the substantial vegetation growth. A region is mostly devoid of natural vegetation cover. A few trees (shisham, kikar, phuli etc) and some bushes are however here and there.

As a result of which the rate of runoff discharge is much higher as compare the rate of infiltration/ absorption. The Kanshi watershed are eroding at the rate of 732 tons per square miles per annum and total sediment load in acre feet is determine is 238.9 and the average discharge in the million acre feet is 0.03.

Khan, (1964-B) surveyed the various land uses of the Ravi watershed and its tributaries. They identified three different land uses, which are scrub forest (area 0.19-3.25 square miles), rangelands (6.48 % of the total area) and cultivated land (88.73% of the total area). The natural vegetation exit in the land uses are kikar, Dhak, Mesquite, papal, Ber and tut and the grasses are khabal and khahi are reported. Some of the forest was burnt in the recent past and now bears only a scattered crop of shisham. There is severe rill and gully erosion in the forest and ranglands in the upper reaches of the catchments. In agriculture fields sugar cane, potato and hybrid maize crop exist. Compare to the other land uses of the area agriculture field contribute a heavy amount of eroded material in the downstream water of Ravi and its tributaries. These conditions not only change the quality of water but also create a flooding situation in surrounding areas. The study suggested the afforestation with shisham to control heavy discharges, maintain soil composition and to improve the absorption rate.

Roitzsch, 1968) stated that vegetation increases the infiltration rate (a) by mechanical protection of the soil from rain drop splash whereby aggregate structure is maintained and clogging of pores is prevented; (b) by slowing down surface run-off and increasing the time for infiltration; (c) by the root activity which acts to increase the permeability of soil

Gilmour, (1977) stated that the sediment derived from stream flowing through undisturbed forest was largely organic, in contrast with the dominantly mineral sediments and streams coming form the logged areas. They also clear that the nutrients such as PO₄, NO₃ and SO₄ are cycling is temporally disturbed and with soil erosion it drain to the downward streams and highly contaminates their quality.

Costables, (1979) found that the mean infiltration rate of forested area was much higher than those of other land uses, which included grazed area, burned and terraced plots. The mean infiltration rates for forest area, grazed area, burned area, and terraced plot were 4.50 mm/hr, 0.94 mm/hr, 2.00 mm/hr and 2.63 mm/hr respectively. The higher mean infiltration rate on the forested area with a cover of 640 tones/ha was mostly due to the under story vegetation, litter layer and microorganisms activities.

Lee, (1980) stated that trees affect the chemical quality of water both directly and indirectly. They found that both throughfall and steamflow are considerably enriched, by contact with trees, in all the major cation and anions except hydrogen, which is reduced. They also reported that increase in nitrogen, principally as organic nitrogen, in throughfall and especially through streamflow; the increase in organic nitrogen was markedly higher in stream flow from alder than from conifers. Uptake of nutrients by trees and there is eventual return to the soil in litterfall must be recognized for its role in influencing seasonal variations in the concentration of stream flow nutrients. Nitrate nitrogen level often rises appreciably when forest uptake of nutrients ceases during the dormant season. Litterfall especially from deciduous species added to water bodies with low flushing rates may increase true color, iron, bicarbonates, and manganese concentration, and decrease dissolved oxygen levels and pH.

Berglund et al, (1981) concluded that the forest vegetation and absence of grazing create favorable soil properties and that the afforestation is best technique for rehabilitation of catchments.

Mathur et al, (1982) found that the infiltration rates in coniferous forest of Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana were higher than the adjacent agricultural field without crop. This increased infiltration rate was assumed because of thick humus layer under forested area. The forests stores the ground water and then it release in a form of a natural spring and streams.

Spears, (1982) claimed that the root soak up water in the wet periods and release it slowly and evenly in the dry season to deep water supply adequately restored.

Bosch et al, (1982) discussed the forests and water (quality and quantity) relationship, for this study they perform 94 different catchment experiments. They found that the increase in total yield was proportional to the reduction in canopy. This reduction results an increases peak flows and flash flooding.

Lves et al, (1988) stated that the forest canopy reduction through tree cutting reduce the evapotranspiration loses from the water budget of forest watershed, resulting an increased water yield in stream from the harvested area.

Banasik, (1989) stated that the infiltration of partial deforestation in a small lowland watershed in central Poland on storm-event sediment yield is analyzed. The rainfall runoff model was applied to estimate the flood hydrograph. Sediment yield during this flood was estimated from the modified Universal soil loss equation. Some parameters of the procedure were established based on field data. Computation was carried out for the original and partially deforested land use in the watershed. It was found that an assumed deforestation of 10 percent of the peak flow rate by 17 % and give a 74 % increase in sediment yield for the assumed rainfall and land cover in the watershed.

The effect of different land uses on the soil permeability was studied and afforestation was found to be the best management technique to increase the infiltration capacity of soil and decrease surface runoff, the erosion rate in catchments areas can be reduced which can check the silting up an artificial water reservoir.

Wood et al, (1990) found that the deforestation watershed granite hill-slope of south China has led to widespread erosion using small experimental plots under different vegetation cover. The effect of land use on soil and water losses was examined. Over land flow increased as the over condition changed from forest to fern, to tilled soil and eventually, to bear ground. This is related to the amount of interception and infiltration, both of which decreased as the vegetation cover decreased. Most slopes consist of a combination of loose material and weathered granite in the resistance to sediment entrainment could not be easily determined. The potential sediment yield increased as the vegetation cover decreased. Based on empirical relationship between over land flow and potential sediment yield, it is demonstrated that soil and water losses can be greatly reduced as vegetation reestablished on this denuded sub tropical slopes. The role of forests in soil and water conservation and the impact of forest removal on related hydrological factors by emphasizing basic principles were reviewed. Water yield will change after vegetation conditions of a watershed are altered, but the relation of forests to water supply still remains controversial due to the diversity of watershed conditions such as amount of precipitation, dominant vegetation, cutting area, and harvesting methods. Forest and other land use patterns are compared in relation to infiltration capacity, water retention and release water quality, groundwater levels, flood mitigation, surface and gully erosion, air temperature, wind speed, microclimate, and regional climate. It is concluded that although forest have limitations they are the best land use pattern as far as soil and water conservation are concerned.

HUJRA, 2000) implemented a project for the promotion of biodiversity conservation through ecotourism and equitable resources use in Miandam valley. They also demonstrate a participatory conservation and sustainable use model for forest resources in Miandam valley.  As a result of this project one village level and six villages’s level conservation committee organized and made functional, establishment of protected sites, ten thousand plants of mixed fruit species, establishment of one biogas plant and hundred fuel-efficient stoves.

Environmental protection society (EPS), (2003) study the limnology of the river swat. According to EPS report issued the pH, alkalinity, conductivity and hardness of water in river stream of swat and its tributaries are within the normal range but the sulphate, total solid contents i.e. suspended and dissolved, were generally high in the tributaries. In most of the river sites and its tributaries nitrate, sulphate contents while in the normal range of NEQS proposed by World Health Organization. They realized that the main culprit behind the high concentration of nitrates and phosphates were agricultural fields where the domestic manure and various chemical fertilizers are used.

Gul et al, (2005-06) reported to identify the potential of ecotourism in the Miandam valley swat. The study also focuses at the negative aspect of tourism i.e. the spreading of pollution load, solid waste in the watersheds of the area. These problems not only cause the degradation of environment but also degrade the quality of water receiving by the natural streams. To control such problems they provide suggestion for the promotion of ecotourism in which they specify to establish tourist information center (TIC), tourist information broacher, track maps, documentary films, camping sites and hiking tracks developments. This will ultimately promote the green concept of the Miandam valley.

Petersen, et al (2006), worked at the “Water associated problems in relation to agriculture in the watershed areas”. They stated that water pollution is a widespread problem in agricultural settings. Runoff can move sediment, nutrients, pathogens, salts, pesticides, and fertilizers to streams, lakes, and aquifers. Elevated levels of turbidity, fecal coliform, pesticides, nitrate-nitrogen, and phosphorus characterize streams in agricultural areas. Excessive nitrate concentrations threaten drinking water quality, whereas increased phosphorus levels are implicated in eutrophication of surface waters. Sediment is the most widespread agricultural pollutant delivered to streams and can be either suspended load or bed load. High sediment loads in streams have a negative impact on fish and macro invertebrates

Hubbart et al, (2006) stated that the land use has a direct effect on the portion of precipitation resulting in runoff. Vegetation cover has a direct influence on the quantity of precipitation that reaches the forest floor and the quantity that is accumulated as snow pack and/or soil moisture. Forest cutting usually results in an increase in water yield. As an extreme example, during urban development, trees are often replaced by pavement. In this case there is very little accumulation of water in the soil reservoir, and almost all rainfall results in direct surface runoff. As pavement deteriorates and cracks, or as trees grows back in the years following harvest (afforestation), soil reservoirs gradually recharge, and water yield tends to decrease thereby returning to previous flow levels.

 Xiaoming et al, (2006) published a paper aims to study the effects of vegetation on runoff and sediment transport at the watershed scale, and to provide a theoretical basis for afforestation in the Loess area, in the nested Caijiachuan watershed. Forest watersheds and farmland watersheds with similar terrain features were selected through cluster analysis to study their runoff and sediment transport characteristics. Results showed that compared with farmland watersheds, runoff generation time in forest watersheds was delayed remarkably, and peak flow was reduced greatly, which indicates that vegetation played an important role in holding and absorbing rainfall. Besides, with the increase of forest coverage, the runoff amount, runoff depth and runoff coefficient decreased during the rainy seasons. The runoff depth and runoff coefficient of farmland watersheds in the rainy season were 5–20-fold as much as that of forest watersheds, and runoff and sediment yield of watersheds with low coverage were 2.7–2.9-fold and 3–6-fold as great as those with high coverage during rainstorms, and low forest coverage had larger variation in sediment hydrograph.

Hussain, (2006) investigated the effect of vegetation cover on the water quality (sediment load) and runoff in Nathiagali.  He compared the sediment yield from different streams and vegetation conditions of those streams. Watersheds show that there is a close relationship between vegetation cover (forest density) and hydric erosion. It was found that a watershed having viable vegetation cover showing slight difference in sediment yield. While the difference is maximum from degraded forest. Forest provides excellent protection to the soil against erosion. It maintains high rates of evapotranspiration, interception and infiltration and therefore generates sustainable quantities of run off. Increase in erosion occurs where the land is permanently or in the case of shifting cultivation, temporary cleared for agriculture.

Hussain, (2006) studied the impact of grazing and deforestation on the infiltration capacity of soil at Ayubia National Park. The area was divided in three different vegetation zone of different density canopy to comparatively analyze the impacts of grazing and deforestation. The results indicate that overgrazing and forest cutting has the significant impact on the absorption of water by the soil. It cause greater runoff and enhance bulk soil density caused by animal hoots. The high zone infiltration rate is 356.6 cm/ hour, moderate zone 32.0 cm/ hour and low-density zone 28.9 cm/ hour respectively. When deforestation and over grazing increase, it not only decreases land infiltration but also decrease the ground storage of water. As a result of this most of the perennial streams dry up and loaded with the heavy sediment yield.

Chapter # 4

                          

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Miandam valley is selected for the study because of its suitability with the research topic. The various data collection methods and procedures used are below

4.1       Discharge measurements

Discharge or water quantification is the passing of water from point in per unit of time (m³/sec). The discharge is measured for selected water khwars such as Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo .The tools used during measurement are Graduated meter rod, measuring tape, Wood piece, Stopwatch and GPS (Table 5.1).

Discharge measurement procedure

·        The water from different watersheds drain to a main khwars, so the measuring point of these khwars is identified which is called its mouth. The GPS readings are recoded at mouths to identify the location.

 The area is calculated, for which the khwars width and average depth is determined (section B-6, 7).    

                 Area (m²) = width * aveg depth

·         Velocity calculation is based on the distance of a part of a stream covered by a wood piece in a unit time recoded with the stopwatch. So that

                                Velocity       = distance / seconds

·         So multiplying the area and velocity of the khwars performs the overall discharge calculation.

Discharge (m³/sec)    = Area (m²) * velocity (m/s)

4.2       Quality of water stream

The water quality of the water is determined in two steps

4.2.1    Water sampling

The water samples were taken from selected three water khwars. The plastic bottles were used for taking samples. Before sampling the bottles were washed with hot water to remove all the impurities present in form of suspended and dissolved solids. After drying, the bottles were filled from the suitable depth (0.1-2 meters) of the stream for the purpose to include all type of load carried by water.

4.2.2    Lab analysis

The water samples taken in different season of summer, winter and spring are analyzed for various physical (pH, turbidity, conductivity, temperature, suspended and dissolve solids) and chemical parameters (Nitrates, sulphate, phosphates).

The procedure for the determination of the various parameters are given below

4.2.2.1  Physical parameters

i) The water quality checker Horiba Japan was used for the determination of the physical parameters i.e. Temperature, pH, and conductivity.

ii) The turbidity meter was used for the turbidity measurement (NTU).

In the turbidity meter standard tests were carried at 1 NTU, 10NTU, 100NTU and 1000NTU.  The various samples were taken in the small bottles of the turbidity meter. These samples stepwise compared with standards and tested by the meter and compiled the results.

4.2.2.1.1. Total solids (T.S)

Total solids = total dissolved solids + total suspended solids

Ø  Total suspended solids

Apparatus:

Filter paper, Vacuum desiccators, stirrer, Beaker, dry oven, analytical balance and glass funnel.

Procedure:

First the filter paper were taken and weighed by the analytical balance and noted the first reading (B). Then the samples were filtered with the help of filter and funnel. The wet filters were put in the oven for 103-105 C0 for about 30-40 minutes. After drying the filters was put in the desiccators to absorb some moisture after desiccation, the filter paper was again weighed and noted the reading (A). The amount of suspended solids presents in samples was shown in the units of ppm.

Calculation

Total solids =   (A-B) * 1000/ ml of sample

A= weight of china dish with dry residues

B= weight of empty and clean dish       (Arnold  et al, 1992).

Ø  Total Dissolved solids (T.D.S)

Apparatus:

Vacuum desiccators, stirrer, china dish, dry oven, analytical balance and glass funnel.

Procedure:

First dry and clean china dishes were taken. Then the china dishes were put in oven at temperature 103-105 C⁰ for one-hour time. Then the dishes were taken and cooled in desiccators. Then the dishes were weighed (B), after weighing known volume of each filtered sample was taken in each dish and put in oven at temperature of 102-105 C⁰ for one hour. Then the dishes were cold at room temperature, then again they were weighed (A). As a result the amount of dissolved solids determined in units of ppm.

Calculation

Total solids =   (A-B) * 1000/ ml of sample

A= weight of china dish with dry residues

B= weight of empty and clean dish (Arnold E, et al, 1992)

4.2.2.2  Chemical parameters

In chemical tests the samples were analyzed for Nitrate, Sulphate, phosphate, the procedure of these parameters given the following

4.2.2.2.1          Nitrates

Reagents:

o   Phenol disulphonic acid

o   10 Normal NaOH solutions: dissolved 400 g NaOH in 1000 ml of distilled water.

o   Standard nitrate solution:

Dissolved 1.010 g of KNO₃ in 1000 ml of distilled water to prepare 0.01 N solutions. This solution is 614 ppm as Nitrate and is called stock nitrate solution.

o   100-ppm standard Nitrate solution

Take 162.8 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 1000 ml with distilled water.

o   50 ppm standard Nitrate solution

Take 250 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 50 ml.

o   15 ppm standard Nitrate solution

o   Take 30 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 100 ml with distilled water.

o   10 ppm standard Nitrate solution

o   Take 66 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 100 ml with distilled water.

o   5 ppm standard Nitrate solution

Take 50 ml of stalk solution and dilute it up to 100 ml with distilled water.

Procedure

Take china dishes and wash it thoroughly, dry the china dishes. Mark china dishes according to the sample that is to be put in it. Put 50 ml of each sample and standard nitrate solution in separate china dishes. Put the china dishes in oven at 100 C⁰ till the water evaporates. Remove the dry china dishes from the oven and add one ml of phenol disulphonic acid to it. Tilt the china dishes around so that the acid covers the whole china dish. Add few ml of distilled water. Add few mo of distilled water. Add few ml of 10 N NaOH solutions to china dishes. The appearance of yellow color shows the presence of nitrates. Match it with yellow color given by the standard nitrate solution. Determine the concentration by spectrophotometer as follow

Set the photometer and set it on visible light at 410 nm wavelength. Put the distilled water in the first cell of photometer, standards of nitrate solutions in second cell and the samples are placed in the third and fourth cells. At concentration mode fix the reading at zero when photometer is reading the distilled water. For standard solution enter the standard concentration. Then note the reading of nitrates in the samples.  

4.2.2.2.2          Phosphate

Apparatus:

Graduated cylinder, pipette, headers, volumetricflasks, and spectrophotometerU-1100 visible at wavelength of 410nm.

Reagents

a)      H₂SO₄ 5 N:

70 ml of concentrated H₂SO₄ were taken and diluted up to 500 ml.

b)     Potassium Antimony Tartarate solution:

1.3715 g of potassium antimony was dissolved in sufficient distilled water and diluted to 500ml.

c)      Ammonium Molybdate:

20 g of (NH₄)₆MoO₇)₃₄ were dissolved in 500 ml distilled water stored in glass stopper bottle.

d)     Ascorbic acid:

1.76 g of Ascorbic acid was dissolved in 100 ml distilled water.

e)      Combined Reagents:

100 ml of combined reagents i.e. 50 ml of 5N H₂SO₄ solution, 5 ml of potassium antimony Tartarate solution, 15 ml of Ammonium Molybdate and 30 ml or Ascorbic acid were mixed together at room temperature.

f)       Stock Phosphate solution:

219.5 mg of anhydrous KH₂PO₄ was dissolved in enough water and were diluted up to 100 ml.

1ml =50 micro gram PO₄

g)      Standard phosphate solution:

50 ml stock solution was diluted unto 100 ml. This results in 25-ppm phosphate solution. For 5 ppm and 10 ppm phosphate solution, 10ml and 20 ml of stock solution was diluted

1 ml = 250 micro gram P.

Procedure:

20 ml of each sample were taken in a small beaker. Few ml of combined reagent sere added to the samples until blue color appeared. By using standard phosphate solution of 5 or 10 ppm. The concentration of samples was checked on spectrophotometer at visible wavelength of 880 nm (Arnold et al, 1992).

4.2.2.2.3          Sulphate:

Sulphate in the water is determined by the turbidimetric method, the detail of which is under.

Reagents preparation

(a)   Buffer solution

The buffer is prepare as 30g MgCl₂.6H₂O, 5 g of sodium acetate, 1 g KNO₃ and 20ml of acetic acid CH₃COOH (99%) mixed in 500ml of distilled water and make up to 1000ml.

(b)   Barium chloride (BaCl₂)

Barium chloride is used in crystal form (20-30 mesh).

(c)    Standard sulphate solution:

The standards are prepared by taking the NaSO₄ as a standard. The 0.676 g of NaSO₄ was taken and dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water. The concentration of this solution was 676 ppm as phosphate.

(d)   ppm standard solutions:

100 ppm, 50ppm, 10ppm, 5ppm and 3 ppm are prepared and diluted step by step from the 676-ppm standard solution of phosphate.

(e)     For 100 ppm, 36.97 ml is taken from the 676-ppm standard solution and make up to 250 ml flask.

(f)    For 50 ppm, 125 ml is taken from the 100-ppm standard solution and make up to 250 ml flask.

(g)   For 10 ppm, 20 ml is taken from the 50 ppm standard and make up to 100 ml of flask.

(h)   For 5 ppm, 50 ml is taken from the 10 ppm standard and make up to 100 ml of flask.

(i)     For 3 ppm, 60 ml is taken from the 5 ppm standard and make up to 100 ml flask.

Procedure:

100 ml of sample is taken in he Erlenmeyer flask 250 ml. Add 20 ml buffer solution and mix in stirring apparatus .at stirring, add a spoonful of BaCl₂ crystals and begin time immediately. Stir for (60 + 2 sec) at constant speed. BaCl₂ produced turbidity in the solution. We used the turbidity as a measure of sulphate ions present in the solution. After the stirring the solution is pour into absorption cell of photometer and measure the turbidity. In the four cells of photometer pour distilled water in the first cell, standard in second cell and samples were in 3rd and 4th. After comparing the samples with the standard, the results were noted (Arnold  et al, 1992).

4.3       GIS Cartography

During field visit the co-ordinates of different locations of three selected water khwars and Miandam stream system was identified by GPS .The vegetation map of three khwars were modified on the toposheet of the area. Then the maps were digitized in GIS through which the forest density was calculated and shown (section C)

4.4       Photographs

Another tool used for data collection is the photographs. Photographs were taken in order to show the true picture of the area visually. The digital photos of the various sites of the area were taken and used some of them in our report (Section B).

 

 Chapter # 5                                           

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1        Factors affecting the discharge (quantity) of water khwars

Generalizing and expanding quantitative results of research from one particular watershed to other areas is difficult since hydrologic impacts depend on the types of forestry operations, catchment’s characteristics (e.g., vegetation, and soil types), climate, watershed size, topography, and other land-use practices (Jason  et al, 2006).

The watersheds of Miandam valley are wide spread and covered large area. The different watershed has different characteristics, which can betterly represent its nature and valuability. The following factors produce various variations in the water quantity of the water khwars, in which catchments area, water sources, natural vegetation, and soil texture and temperature variation are include.

5.1.1    Catchment area

The catchment area is that area from where a stream collects their water. Catchments area plays a vital role in the collecting discharge of any stream. The watershed, which has great catchments area, will receive more precipitation. In case of snowfall the snow accumulation will more and as a result an ultimate increase in the lifetime of water source in the watershed.

The results show great variations in the discharge of different seasons of summer, winter and spring, the major culprit behind this variation is the catchments area. The three selected watershed areas are very different from each other i.e. the Gujaroo watershed covers large catchments area from Swatoo watershed and Swatoo cover large area than the Kaldar watershed.

5.1.2    Water sources

The water khwar are dependant on the water sources available in a watershed. So the stream, which has high sources of water, will contribute large amount of water to the down streams.

In Miandam valley mostly the sources of water are the snowfall, rainfall and natural springs. As the area consists of high peaks of mountains so it receives a large amount of water in a form of snowfall. The large watersheds receive large snowfall and precipitation, so the snowfalls are accumulates and release water by melting slowly and gradually in large interval of time.

5.1.3    Natural vegetation cover

Natural vegetation plays a great role in the infiltration capacity of an area. The vegetation deep roots absorb the water and increase the ground water level. When the infiltration rate is more, the run off is decrease which ultimately decrease the soil erosion in sedimentation rate in down stream waters. So the selected watersheds occupy different vegetation cover i.e. Swatoo watershed have low vegetation cover (< 30 %), Kaldar watershed moderate cover (30-60%) and Gujaroo high vegetation cover (> 60%). So this situation of different vegetation creates high fluctuations in the discharge (quantity) of water Khwar drain from these watersheds.

5.1.4    Temperature

Temperature is also one of the factors, which affect the discharge of the water khwar. It is because of the fact that every thing expands with heating. So when the temperature is become high the melting of accumulated snow is accelerated and large amount of water is found in the nearby water streams. Because of the climatic conditions the temperature is found different in the four seasons of the year. Hence it is the only reasons that discharge level is found high in summer and comparatively low in other seasons.

5.1.5    Topography

Topography can greatly affect stream flow and the shape of a hydrograph through direct impacts on the watershed’s response to precipitation. The shape of the hydrograph is influenced by watershed characteristics such as slope, shape, size, elevation and soil. A steeper slope is usually characterized by shallower soil depth and increased overland runoff that moves at higher velocities. Some soils allow better water infiltration, which can also impact the hydrograph by lowering the peak flow and broadening its time base. The response of smaller watersheds is sensitive to high rainfall intensity while the response of larger watersheds is dominated by soil reservoir storage capacity. The hydrograph of small watersheds usually displays sharp and narrow peaks while larger watersheds have broader peaks with a longer time base. Rainfall to runoff ratios also change depending on the elevation (i.e., quantity of rain to quantity of runoff). For example, low-elevation watersheds have a gentle slope and deeper soil and lower rainfall/runoff ratios relative to high-elevation watersheds with steep slopes and shallow soils, which exhibit much higher rainfall/runoff ratios (Jason et al, 2006).

5.2        Discharge results

The discharge results of three khwars along with its GPS location readings in three different seasons are given separately in three tables (section-A)

The table A.1 is clearly represented by the graphs, so the Graphical representation of the discharge of winter season is below in Fig-5.1

                                                      Fig- 5.1

         

                                       

 The Fig. shows that the Gujaroo khwar discharge 2.590 m³/sec is higher than the Swatoo and Kaldar discharges in winter season. As it is mention earlier that Gujaroo watershed has high density of vegetation cover (> 60 %). But some factors such as large area of Gujaroo watershed than Kaldar and Swatoo watersheds influence its discharge quantity of water as it receives more precipitation in a form of snow in winter season. When the temperature as low as 11 C⁰, the ice melting is take place gradually and it contributes water for a long time (some is absorb and the rest of water is runoff) than the Swatoo and Kaldar watersheds.  Because of this factor it has high peak of water quantity, which it contributes to the Gujaroo khwar. Kaldar flow (discharge) is normal between the Swatoo and Gujaroo discharges because of its medium vegetation density cover (60-30 %).

As a result it proved that the Swatoo watershed contributes more runoff, high discharge and low infiltration comparatively Kaldar and Gujaroo watersheds.

The table A.2 (Section A) is clearly represented by the following Fig 5.2, so the Graphical representation of the discharge of spring season is

                                                    Fig-5.2

                            

The above Fig 5.2 shows that the Swatoo discharge 0.507 m³/sec is greater than 0.098 m³/sec and 0.174 m³/sec of Kaldar and Gujaroo discharges respectively in spring season. From winter graph discussion it is clear that the Gujaroo watershed high catchments area and high vegetation cover contributes high discharge. But here in spring season its discharge is low than Swatoo watershed discharge, which indicates the vegetation difference between the two watersheds besides the fact that its area is also high. The Kaldar khwar water quantity is again between the two khwars discharges. The graph shows a high bar of discharge for Gujaroo and small for Kaldar which not clearly represent the basic idea of vegetation exist. This conflict between the Kaldar and Gujaroo discharges is because of its different catchments area and water sources.

As a result of this discussion the Swatoo watershed (< 30 %) contributes high amount of water than the Kaldar (30-60%) and Gujaroo (> 60 %) watersheds.

The table 5.3 (section A) is represented by the following Fig 5.3, the Graphical representation of the summer season discharge is given below

                                            Fig-5.3

                              

The Fig- 5.3 shows that the Swatoo discharge 1.04 m³/sec is again high than the 0.47 m³/sec and 0.312 m³/sec of Kaldar and Gujaroo respectively in summer season. In summer season the temperature is mostly dominated, which accelerates the melting of snow packs at the upper peaks of the Watershed Mountains. As a result of melting a large amount of water is release to the down stream system exists in the watersheds. So that is the reason through which this graph shows a very high bar for the discharge of Swatoo Khwar because of its low absorption and low vegetation cover.  There is a variation of area exits between the Kaldar and Gujaroo watersheds, so the little bar of the graph shows a low discharge of Kaldar Khwar is than of the Gujaroo one. If the external factors are excluded, the Kaldar watershed (30-60 %) will contribute high discharge of water than that of the Gujaroo watershed (>60 %)

5.3       Physical parameters

In the physical parameters includes the pH, turbidity, temperature, DO, conductivity and total suspended solids.

The pH recorded for Swatoo khwar in winter, spring and summer are 6.9, 7.10 and 6.82.

 Similarly the readings for Kaldar and Gujaroo are 6.7, 7.16, 7.37 and 6.7, 7.25, 7.10 respectively. Overall pH of streams in three seasons is normal and under the permissible limit.

Conductivity

Conductivity is defined as the quantity of dissolved material in water and depends mainly on the solubility of rocks and soils the water contacts. Conductivity has some relation with the dissolved solids but not always similar because the conductivity is only passing of the current from the ionic solids (Dara, 1995).

The conductivity recorded in µs/cms for Swatoo in winter, spring and summer are 44.2, 78.6 and 77.3 µs/cms while for Kaldar and Gujaroo khwar are 55.8, 93.7, 124.1 and 55.4, 126.2, 122.2 µs/cms respectively. These differences in conductivity among different sub watersheds are likely due to interactions with soils as well as human activity.

Temperature

The temperature was measured in C⁰ , the readings in three seasons are similar for Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo i.e. 11, 12 and 14 C⁰ respectively which is under the accepted level.

Turbidity

 Turbidity of the water plays a very important role in water quality of a stream. Turbidity is defined as the optical property of a water sample that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample. “In simple terms, turbidity answers the question, "How cloudy is the water”. (Dara, 1995). The turbidity (NTU) recorded in winter, spring and summer for the Swatoo khwar are 5.7, 6.1 and 1 NTU, and for the Kaldar khwar are 6.3, 5.8 and 1 NTU while for Gujaroo khwar 6.1, 5.4 and 1 NTU.

Total suspended solids (TSS)

The total suspended solids concentrations and turbidity both indicate the amount of solids suspended in the water, whether mineral (e.g., soil particles) or organic (e.g., algae) (Dara, 1995). The amount of total suspended solids in ppm calculated for Swatoo khwar is 3.435, 2.245 and 1.425 ppm. For the Kaldar and Gujaroo khwars the amount is 9.80, 0.360, 0.815 ppm and 7.235, 1.06, 0.31 ppm respectively.

                                                         

                                                         Fig-5.4

The high value found in TSS is 9.805 ppm for the Kaldar Khwar in winter season while the lowest value recorded is 0.31 ppm for the Gujaroo Khwar in summer season. In the Fig-5.4 all the TSS of water khwars under the acceptable limit.

Total Dissolved solids calculated (ppm) for the samples taken from the three selected water khwars i.e. Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo in three seasons winter, spring and summer. So the amount of TDS in milligram per liter (ppm) for Swatoo is 22, 39, 39 ppm and for Kaldar 26, 44, 62 ppm while for Gujaroo 27, 63, 61 ppm respectively.

                                                         Fig-5.5 –

In the Fig -5.5 all the TDS of water khwars under the acceptable limit. The high value found in TDS is 63 ppm for the Gujaroo Khwar in spring season. This is not only the temperature, which affects the TDS of the water, but other factor also involved. When the temperature is low then the solids dissolve in water slowly comparatively to hot temperature of the water.

5.4       Chemical quality

The chemical parameters measured include the nitrates, phosphates and Sulphates.

Phosphate

Phosphorus is one of the key elements necessary for growth of plants and animals. Phosphorus in elemental form is very toxic and is subject to bioaccumulation. Phosphates PO₄ are formed from this element.  Phosphates are important in nature. Their occurrence may result from the breakdown of organic pesticides, which contain phosphates. They may exist in solution, as particles, loose fragments, or in the bodies of aquatic organisms (Dara, 1995).

The different values of phosphate in ppm in three seasons of winter, spring and summer are calculated (ppm) in which the Swatoo khwar is 0, 1.875, 2.246 ppm, Kaldar khwar calculated is 0, 1.974, 1.520 ppm while the Gujaroo khwar is 0, 1.014, 7.960 ppm.

 The graphical representation of phosphate is given below by Fig.5.6

                                                                     Fig- 5.6

              

The Fig-5.6 shows lower values i.e. 0 ppm in winter seasons for all khwars. The highest value is recoded is 7.960 ppm for the Gujaroo khwar in summer seasons. The seasonal results show that the phosphate concentration is under the acceptable levels.

Nitrates

Nitrates are one of the major components of water, which can cause different problems in the water. The measured nitrates are tabulated below

Table.1 shows the concentrations of nitrates in ppm for three different khwars. The results are represented by the following Fig 5.7

Name of Stream	Concentration of Nitrate in ppm
	Winter	spring	summer
Swatoo khwar	2.20	2.41	3.34
Kaldar khwar	3.98	3.28	2.98
Gujaroo khwar	3.28	3.98	3.24

                                                    Fig-5.7                                                    

           

One of the study describe that the nitrate have the following common sources Fertilizers and manure, Animal feedlots, Municipal wastewater and sludge, Septic systems, and N-fixation from atmosphere by legumes, bacteria and lightning (Dara, 1995).                   The analysis shows that the nitrates concentration is high kaldar khwar in winter season and of Gujaroo khwar in spring season. The very low concentration is recorded for the swatoo khwar in winter season (table.1, fig 5.7).

Sulphates

Sulphates (SO₄) can be found in almost all-natural water. The origin of most Sulphates compounds is the oxidation of Sulphates ores, or the fertilizers and manure wastes. The maximum level of Sulphates suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the Guidelines for Drinking water is 500 ppm (Dara, 1995).   The analysis of Swatoo, Kaldar and Gujaroo khwar for sulphates (ppm) in the winter, spring and summer seasons are shown in Fig 5.8.

                                      

                                            Fig-5.8

The minimum concentration of Sulphates is found in Swatoo khwar i.e. 2.45 ppm and the maximum concentration is 6.9 ppm for Gujaroo khwar in spring season.

5.5              Discussion on the quality of stream water in different season

In Miandam valley the three watersheds which are most popular in the valley because of their natural beauty. These watersheds have different vegetation density and different land use pattern such as agriculture, range and forests. These land uses not only influenced the quantity of water in downstream but also affects the ground water quality as well as the surface stream /khwar waters. The difference in the quality not only affected by the land use pattern but also by season variation. The analyzed physical qualities of stream water have little variation in different seasons. However turbidity of this water has some differences, due to the forest density, which controls the erosion rate as well as infiltration capacity of the soil. Suspended load of a stream is an indicator of erosion was determined. Among the three watersheds, suspended load of Swatoo khwar was high. This can be attributing to the deforestation and land use pattern such as agricultural activities of its watershed.

The different land uses in the catchments area affects the chemical quality of the stream such as agriculture practices where the use of fertilizer increase the concentration of nitrate, phosphate and sulphate. The Phosphates and Nitrates levels found also as a result of sewage discharge and decaying organic matter. The peoples living in the catchments area use soap and detergents for different purposes in daily life, which also increase the concentration of sulphate and phosphate. The concentration of these chemicals is very low because of short time for such kind of practices. The concentration of Sulphates, nitrate and phosphate is considered as high in some seasons because of the nearby presence of agricultural fields and domestic wastes. Rainfall can cause varying amounts of phosphates to wash from farm soils into nearby waterways. However, if an excess of phosphate enters the waterway; algae and aquatic plants will grow wildly, choke up the waterway and use up large amounts of oxygen. This condition is known as eutrophication. The rapid growth of aquatic vegetation can cause the death and decay of vegetation and aquatic life because of the decrease in dissolved oxygen levels.

This control of chemical contents because of the vegetation absorption capacity that not only raise the ground water table but also absorbed the chemical contents. So as a result of discussion a little variation is found in the quality of streams in various seasons. This variation effect is because of vegetative covers and some other land uses in the valley.

                  

Chapter # 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusion

It is concluded that the watershed which have the low dense forest(less than 30 %) leave a high amount of water discharge comparatively to the moderate forest zone (60-30 %) and high forest zone (above than 60%). The three selected watershed discharges are very different from each other in the three seasons of winter, spring and summer; it is because of some external factors such as catchments area, topography and temperature. If the involved factors are excluded, the vegetation and water relation will be very obvious and clear in the watersheds. As the study focused on the comparison of three watersheds of various vegetative cover, the comparison shows that the watershed have low vegetation cover will contribute more water in the downward stream, the absorption will be low and runoff will be high. The present of vegetation regulate the melting of snow in the upper stream area and increase the duration period of stream flow for downstream areas. Vegetation not only improves the quality and quantity of water and control erosion but also decrease the chances for occurrence of floods in the downstream areas.

Vegetation not only improves the quality and quantity of water and control erosion but also decrease the chances for occurrence of floods in the downstream areas. The water quality analysis shows a great relation in vegetation and water. In the selected watersheds there exists a different land use that affects the water quality differently. Such as the forested watershed minimize the sedimentation rate in the water khwars because the forest hold the surface with the roots, while the agriculture and grazing land of watersheds have a high rate of sediments. The chemical content shows no much variation in the various seasons in case of quality and vegetation. The variation exists but it is due to the different land uses such as agriculture and residential areas. The agriculture chemical fertilizers increase the level of nitrates, phosphate in the downward runoff water. The detergents, soaps and various sewages increase the level of phosphate and Sulphates. The high level of nutrients such as phosphate, nitrate and Sulphates cause the Eutrophication of the streams.

As the watershed contain three different land uses such as forest, agriculture and rangelands in Miandam valley, the water quality and quantity is directly related with these different land uses, so based on the above-mentioned conclusions, the following recommendations are made that not only to regulate and clarify the water and vegetation relations but also to manage the watersheds betterly.

 Recommendations for Forest

·         In the forest, degraded areas must be rehabilitated through plantation of indigenous species and fast growing species. However, areas where problem of soil erosion is too severe, forest engineering works may be initiated.

·         The existing forests should be fully protected and completely stocked as soon as

            possible.

·         The existing rangelands should be converted into forest-cumgrass lands. Afforestation shall have to be done at catchments of streams in ranges and afforestation shall have to be used also for treating the rangelands near stream banks.

·         The area under forests should be increased for a balanced proportion of forests in relation to the total area of the catchments

·         All the forest land should be preserved and completely afforested by the Government with the great help of local people.

·         To reduce pressure on natural forest for fuel wood, fast growing tree species like popular, wallow etc. should be grown in the downstream areas. .

·         All the forest working plans should lay considerable emphasis on vegetation and water conservation practices. The forests in precipitous areas should not be worked for commercial exploitation and their function should be restricted to provide a natural cover on the land.

·         An efficient system of fire protection should be developed.

·         Cultivation on very step slope should be abandoned.

·        Horticulture should be encouraged particularly on cultivated lands, which are expected to erosion.

 Recommendations for Agriculture

·         The agricultural practices adopted in that area should be confined only to the gentle slope. All agricultural land cultivated on slop should be planted with fruit trees only. WWF-P and other custodian departments like HUJRA of project area should provide fruit trees to the local people on subsidize rate.

·         Alternatives like off-season vegetables and cultivation of profitable medicinal plants may be introduced to their agriculture

·         The cultivated fields usually remain fallow (inactive) during the monsoons when large runoff results from them. Introduction of leguminous cover crops in the rainy season will increase infiltration and will considerably reduce water and soil loss from the fallow land

·         All the cultivated fields should be properly terraced.

·         Downhill and uphill ploughing should be discontinued and contour-ploughing preferabably with strip cropping should be practiced.

·         Spillways should be constructed at suitable places in the cultivated fields. Outlets should also be constructed for field-to-field drainage.

·         Hillside drainage should be ensured so that excessive water does not spoil the agricultural fields.

·         Increased use of fertilizers should be minimize, instead of fertilizers the green manuring should be encouraged as for as possible.

·         An efficient system of water disposal from cultivated lands involving as little soil erosion as possible should be developed.

Recommendations for Rangelands

• Rotational grazing system should be initiated in the forests for the improvement of surface grass and biomass production. It should be ensured that the biomass consumption should not exceed 50% and that livestock should be distributed evenly over the forest area.
• To reduce grazing pressure from the forest area.  Some medicinal species must be establish in Miandam valley with the involvement of local peoples
• Grazing should be allowed only according to the capacity of the forest and range areas.

·         A holistic awareness program for different target groups must be developed, based on the results of this study to brief local community about the impacts of deforestation and overgrazing on the quality and quantity of water at Miandam valley.

·         Pond should be constructed at the foot of the sloping areas. They will serves as           water stores for the livestock and will also control run-off

·         Badly depleted rangelands should be improved by observing complete closures. They should be stocked by seeding of palatable grasses and forage species.

·         Grazing should be controlled in all the rangelands. Undue pressure of grazing should be avoided on particular areas. Rotational closures should be applied for proper maintenance of rangelands.

·         Grass cutting and stall feeding should be encouraged and free range discouraged.

·         Rotational pasturing should be enforced where the ranges have been overgrazed and have deteriorated.

       Some other suggestion for watershed

·         Masses should be educated about the importance of various forest conservation  

            and watershed management treatments.

·         Excessive population from congested hilly areas should be shifted to less populated canal colonies in the plains.

·         Protection of forest and vegetative bunds should be strengthened by raising tree belts along side of them.

·         Grazing, lopping and timber concession should be withdrawn from all state forests. The right holders may be compensated adequately.

 

Section-A

Table No A.1 shows the readings of Quantity (discharge m3/ sec) of water contributes by each watershed in winter season (April)

S.No	Water khwar	Discharge (m3/ sec)	GPS reading
1	Swatoo Khwar	2.125	N= 350 02 46.1 E= 720 33 57.3
2	Kaldar khwar	0.960	N= 350 02 43.3 E= 720 33 56.2
3	Gujaroo khwar	2.590	N= 350 03 11.6 E= 720 33 25.9

Table No. A.2 shows the readings of Quantity of water contributes by each watershed in spring season (June)

S.No	Water khwar	Discharge (m3/ sec)	GPS reading
1	Swatoo Khwar	0.507	N= 350 02 46.1 E= 720 33 57.3
2	Kaldar khwar	0.098	N= 350 02 43.3 E= 720 33 56.2
3	Gujaroo khwar	0.174	N= 350 03 11.6 E= 720 33 25.9

Table No. A.3 Shows the Quantity of water contributes by each watershed in summer season (September)

S.No	Water khwar	Discharge (m3/ sec)	GPS reading
1	Swatoo Khwar	1.040	N= 350 02 46.1 E= 720 33 57.3
2	Kaldar khwar	0.312	N= 350 02 43.3 E= 720 33 56.2
3	Gujaroo khwar	0.470	N= 350 03 11.6 E= 720 33 25.9

Table No.A.4  showing the results of water quality analysis in winter season

S.No	parameter	Swatoo khwar	Kaldar khwar	Gujaroo khwar
1	pH	7.6	7.56	7.6
2	Conductivity (ms/cm)	0.025	0.032	0.025
3	Turbidity (NTU)	5.7	6.3	6.1
4	Temperature (co)	10	10	10
5	TSS (mg/l)	3.435	9.805	7.21
6	TDS (mg/l)	1.07	0.1	0.14
7	Nitrates (mg/l)	2.20	2.41	3.34
8	Phosphate (mg/l)	Nill	Nill	Nill
9	Sulphate (mg/l)	3.1	1.8	3.4

Table No.A.5 showing the results of water quality analysis in spring season

S.No	parameter	Swatoo khwar	Kaldar khwar	Gujaroo khwar
1	pH	6.5	6.5	7.04
2	Conductivity (ms/cm)	0.049	0.078	0.080
3	Turbidity (NTU)	6.1	5.8	5.4
4	Temperature (co)	11	11	11
5	TSS (mg/l)	2.245	2.68	1.06
6	TDS (mg/l)	0.7	0.38	0.05
7	Nitrates (mg/l)	3.980	3.280	2.98
8	Phosphate (mg/l)	1.875	1.974	1.014
9	Sulphate (mg/l)	2.45	6.80	6.90

Table No.A.6  showing the results of water quality analysis in summer season

S.No	parameter	Swatoo khwar	Kaldar khwar	Gujaroo khwar
1	pH	7.0	7.0	6.98
2	Conductivity (ms/cm)	0.049	0.059	0.075
3	Turbidity (NTU)	1	1	1
4	Temperature (co)	13	13	13
5	TSS (mg/l)	1.425	0.815	0.31
6	TDS (mg/l)	0.15	0.05	0.9
7	Nitrates (mg/l)	3.280	3.980	3.240
8	Phosphate (mg/l)	2.246	1.520	7.960
9	Sulphate (mg/l)	4.734	6.70	6.10

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Annexure.2

Site Pictures 

                            Pic.1    Greenery of Ayubia National Park  (WWF-Pakistan)

Pic .2    Researcher measuring the DBH of the Mother tree

                   Pic.3     Illegal cutting of conifer trees observed inside the park area