By Siddiq
ullah
Keywords; Profesors called Mudarris
or shaik, madrassa of Baghdad,
professor Sources of income,
Instability of income and resort
to abuses, Pensions, students
as participant in the Class,
The Rise of
Colleges or Madrassa
in Muslim Arab World
1-Profesors
Under this
heading comes:
i)
Designations:
The
terms mudarris and shaik were used for the top level teachers.Mudarris meant
the professor of law; while sheikh meant professor of any other field of
learning.
The term tadris was used for professorship of law alone; while others
were referred as mashyakha.
ii)
Status In The Community:
a)
Importance of the professorial post:
According
to ibne khaldun, scholars in all fields of knowledge for the most part were non
Arabs, and those who were Arab in their genealogy were non Arabs in their
mother tongue. This was mainly because Arabs were mainly seeking power and had
little time for knowledge seeking, according to him. He termed their goals
sought as riyasa and mulk. But still knowledge was preferred by social climbers
because of it less perilous nature, “for education makes it possible for the
poor to tread on the carpets of the kings”. The place of professor was most
reverential as was evident from the development of inaugural lecture, attending
of that by the govt.officials and the bestowal of robes of honor.
b)
Inaugural Lecture:
This practice came to the fore around the
middle of fifth/eleventh century. Before this there was a custom of attending
the lectures of the visiting scholars proceeding for hajj before the advent of
the two great madrassa of Baghdad.
They were well attended by chief Qadi and general public with the same interest.
Attendance at such lectures was a mark of respect. This practice also added
some spice to the custom of the gathering of regular sparring scholars for
issuing of legal opinions and other such disputations. The custom of attending
the lectures of the visiting scholars goes back a long way. This practice of
inaugural lecture of the professors seems an extension of such ceremonies as
used to be held for wazirs and chief qadis. In such ceremonies for dignitaries
of the ruling power, the deed of investiture was read publicly and honorific
titles and robes of honor given to incumbents.
The new professor ship of law was in the similar fashion heralded by an
inaugural lecture or a disputation and attended by govt and scholarly
dignitaries as well as by students of law. When Ghazzali was sent to Baghdad by nizam ul mulk
to grace the chair of shafi’i law at madrassa nizamiya, he was greatly honored
in the similar fashion. It was the number of dignitaries both govt and
scholarly which decided the honor and popularity of the professor.
The subject of the inaugural lecture or disputation was not limited to on
topic alone; rather he could display his versatility by speaking on diverse
topics to impress his audience. Similarly sweetmeats and other eatables used to
be distributed among the attendants in honor of the professor.
Attendance
at such in augural ceremonies was indicative of the approval of the choice for
the college professorship and the poor attendance of the scholars and
dignitaries meant the disapproval of the professor for the professorship of the
college concerned.
For the talented professors this show was to make a good impression of
his talents; for the less talented, it could be and ordeal. So the greater the
multitude and numerous the men of eminence, the more the inaugural lecture was
insightful, brilliant, charming, persuasive and eloquent.
3. Sourses of income:
a). fees from students:
In early centuries of Islam, majority of students
could not afford to pay the fees and teaching scholars never became rich. Often
enough, both students and teachers lived a hard living because neither could
get financially benefited from the other. There are instances of teachers who have
spent what they hired from their parents on the education of their own students
instead of charging them with fees. Some teachers used to get scholarships from
the rulers and used to teach free of charge. Some used to charge very nominally.
Some special accommodations were made when money was lacking, for instance one
learning from the other on reciprocal basis and thus becoming teachers of each other.
Teachers were still paid even after the advent of any other fully endowed
colleges which were limited as to staff and students. Some Quranic experts have
been reported to have earned three hundred thousand dinars from student fees.
Still some other teachers were reluctant to accept fee for the teaching of
religious sciences. With this scruple they and their families faced hard time
in their lives.
Controversy continued over whether to charge or not to charge fee on
religious teaching. Some declared it prohibited, like Ghazzali.Elsewhere he has
legitimatized the acceptance of payment form the college endowment for ones
rightful needs. Others saw nothing wrong in this practice.
b) Pensions:
Pensions were offered
to jurisconsults, learned men and students by the sovereigns. For instance Qadi
Abu Yousaf received a great sum from Caliph Harun al Rashid in addition to the
monthly pension. The ulema were receiving such payments under the ummayad.Some
were most favored because they could get as many as three pensions at a time in
various capacities simultansiously serving at three posts. While others preferred
not to be on the list of pension payee in order to preserve their freedom of speech.
While some others lost their pensions after incurring the displeasure of their patrons.
Some scholars used their influence to get funds for the education of their
students from their patrons.
c)
endowed salaries:
The monthly professional salary in the
madrassas of Baghdad
in the fifth/eleventh century was usually ten dinars which was half the amount
paid to a physician of the fourth/tenth century.
4) Instability of income and resort to
abuses:
a) Instability of income:
There
were instances of scholars who after being removed from their post, lived a
destitute life. Some sold all their possessions and still other even their
homes.
b) Embezzlement of endowment income:
There were also instances of professors of law being dismissed for
embezzlement and misappropriation. The temptation was great for some , especially
where the post of mutawwali and professorship was combined in one. The Nizamiya College was beset with such frequent dismissals
and appointments. In contrast, some appointments have last as long as fifty
years because of the excellent administrative abilities of the professor made
his replacement impossible.
d)
Multiplicity Of Posts:
There were great many instances of professors holding posts in several
colleges and after having acquired post with huge salaries, hired substitutes
at nominal fee to work in their place. Ulema have been greatly criticized for
their worldliness and cupidity of this kind. Instances are available where one
professor held as many as eleven posts in different madrassas.similarly,
besides arranging for substitutes, other taught at different place on different
days of the week.
Attempts were made to stop this practice as different founders of
different colleges made stipulations in their deeds of foundation stopping the
professorship being combined with other post or posts. But these isolated attempts
proved in effective.
D) Divisibility of Posts:
It means many professors had to share one post.
Some had to be divided into half, some into thirds and some even into fourths. The
fist known case of the division of professorship occurs in fifth/eleven century
in Baghdad when
two professors having the order to occupy the same post at nizamiya and taught
according to an alternating schedule. Many criticized this practice as it was detrimental
to the legal education of the student owing to the different content and method
of teaching.
Some had double appointment to the one and same post. One as principal professor,
the other as substitute .Similarly tenures were contested and legal opinions
sought in order to despoil someone of his appointment or to share the
appointment.
5) Accession to Professorial Post:
Normally superior qualification was the
criteria of selection. But before the advent of the license to teach, it was upon
the recommendation of the candidate’s professor or the general consensus of the
local ulema.Other considerations were also brought into play.
a)
By line of Descent:
One
of the earliest customs in this regard was to stipulate that the post of mutawwali
and mudarris should be reserved for the descendent of the founder especially
when those colleges and madrassa were founded by the professors themselves.
Some founders also stipulated that the post of professorship of law be reserved
for the progeny of the founder, and those among them not qualified should be
provided with a substitute till they qualify.
b) By Sale:
Some professors
resigned their post for others for a consideration of prices to be paid to the
incumbent.
c)
Other Abuses:
Some
professors resigned because they thought it was not possible for an honest
learned man to make a living teaching in colleges. According to them, it was those
who were self seeking sycophants, or unlearned scoundrels who benefited form
the endowment colleges. It was advised that the seeker of knowledge must take
up a craft to live by so as to keep his self respect and preserve the sanctity of
his callings a professor of religious science.
II Students:
i)
Classification:
Students
were classified as:
a) By relative level of Studentship:
There
were three relative levels
i) Mubtadi (beginners) ii) mutawassit (intermediate) iii) muntahin (terminal).
b)
As Stipendaries:
Within these three levels, other levels were determinable by the amount
of stipends of the students. And thus they got stipends according to those
specific level in which they fell.
c) As Foundationers:
As foundationers, students fell
into two categories;
1) the Mutafaqqih (undergraduate students of law) 2) the Faqih (the graduate students as well
as the accomplished jurisconsults).further (1) mutafaqqih designated the
student of law up to and including thee terminal class, al-muntahin; (2) Faqih
designated the students of law beyond the terminal up to the license to teach
law and issue legal opinions.Occasionly an in a loose sense there has been
evidence of both the terms being used interchangeably.
d) As participant in the Class:
Two
different terms, al-mustaghil (the working student) and al-mustami (the
auditing student).the working student, as Stipendry, was ranked above the
auditor.
e) Other terms for Students:
Talib and talmidh were terms used to designate students generally.
Further talmidh further connoted the meaning of disciple; while talib (the
seeker of hadith) was some time used specially for students of hadith.
2) Some aspects of Student
life:
a) The Idle Student:
The
student belonging to the class ifta had to participate in disputation more
actively than students below his ranks to justify the stipends they got. This
was to encourage the low ranking student and let them learn from their
immediate seniors. The terminal student was thus a step in rank below the mufid,
and the latter, a step below that of the mu’id.these two posts may be compared
t those of the modern teaching fellow, or assistants. The students doing their jobs
for the sake of getting as many shares in endowments as possible has been
severely criticized. Similarly idle and delinquent and the trend of absenteeism
of the students have also been criticized. To overcome the idle or delinquent
behaviors of the students an attendance keeper post existed in every college or
madrassa.
b) The Sham Sufi Novice:
Monasteries
were the endowed pious foundations based on waqf. Naturally, a great number of
sham Sufi novices took advantage of the growing number of them. The excesses of
the sham Sufi novices have been severely criticized. The number of feigned
Sufis grew considerably. Actual Sufi is the one who renounce the worldly goods
and devoted his life to the worship of God only. Most of the true Sufis decline
membership in monastries, preferring to do without the material goods rather
than seeking stipends from monasteries. If some one seeks a share from such institutes
for material gains, he is not a true Sufi. Actually these Sufis are disguised
and sham. These people have been termed as mice and scorpions. They use
monasteries to put on their counterfeited garments, to use drugs, and engross
themselves in acquiring worldly goods. True Sufis take to the monastic life to
devote himself fully to God. There were those who were sincere in their
vocation on entering the monastery, but found it hard to resist temptation or
accepting the patronage of the men of power.
3) Financial Conditions:
This could be further categorized as:
a) Professor’s Support of Students:
There were instances of teachers supporting students in galore. This
practice was not uncommon among the pious and ascetic professors. A classical
instance is that of imam Abu Hanifa (R.A) supporting his disciple Abu Yusuf lavishly.
Many had set aside a home for their out-of-town students. Some bequeathed their
books and endowment income for the purchase of paper and ink. Some even went
out to beg for the meeting of the financial need of their students. Such aid by
philanthropic professor continued long before and after the establishment of
endowed colleges because the colleges could not finance more than a specific
number of students.
b) Patrons among the Powerful:
Caliphs, notables and officials were also
among the early benefactors of scholars. They at times gave money to the
professors to distribute among their students. Some provided funds for the
provision of paper on annual basis. Some caliphs established allowances for them
from public treasury. Some professors, however, refused to take money for them
selves as well as for distributing among their disciple so that they could stay
out of the corrupting influence of money as well as of their offerors.
c) Mutual Aid:
Instances could
also be found in which student-jurisconsults pooled their resources in order to
help their fellow students. In many cases the members of the study circles
provided subsistence to the needy.
d) Wealthy Parents:
Among the students, who generally were in financial
straits, there were wealthy students who lived in the lap of luxury. Having
wealthy parents, they could borrow easily through their professors, from the
local merchants when cheques were slow in coming from home. They could easily
afford to rent a house to live in, with servant girls to serve and entertain them.
In short, some studied by the light of the watchman’s lamp; while others
studied on pulpits of gold and silver.
e) Endowed Colleges:
There were endowed colleges with a fixed
number of students to be kept and reared. But there were also madrassas whose
endowments allowed the mutawwali to increase or decrease the number of students,
according to the fluctuation of the income and at his own discretion. If and
where needed a fatwa was issued to increase or decrease the number provided the
college enrolment was not limited by any stipulation in the deed of the foundation.
The stipends in the endowed colleges had to be reduced in years of the falling crop.
In some colleges it was not paid at all if the situation worsened. Stipends
were paid of different amounts to student s of different levels. There have
also been instances of students living in a college as one of its beneficiaries,
receiving room and board, while studying under a professor elsewhere. Fatawa literature,
dealing with the nature of colleges stipends disbursed to its beneficiaries, is
abound with cases of the competition for residence.