TYPES OF CURRICULUM
The development of the general design to the curriculum has been
emphasized for several decades. Many types or patterns are being followed in
educational institutions.
ü
Subject curriculum
ü
Activity/Experience curriculum
ü
Core curriculum
ü
Board field curriculum
ü
Learner centered curriculum
ü
Hidden curriculum
ü
Integrated curriculum
A brief description of some patterns of curriculum is given below:
2.1 Subject Based Curriculum:
It is the oldest and the most widely accepted form of curriculum
organization. The earliest example of this sort of organizations the seven
liberal arts in the schools of ancient Greece and Rome and in the monastery and
Cathedrals of the middle ages in the Medieval Era. The seven liberal arts
consisted of two divisions:
1.
Trivium: Its lower division consisting of: i. Grammar ii. Rhetoric
iii. Dialectic (logic)
2.
Quadrivium consists of Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy and Music.
These subjects were broad. The seven liberal arts do not conform
precisely to modern subjects having the same titles. In the modern period the
Trivium was further divided to include literature and history and the
quadrivium to include algebra, trigonometry, geography, botany, zoology,
physics and chemistry. In this manner subjects went on being added one after
the other so much so that in 1930 there were over 300 distinct subjects of
instruction. Despite all this the seven liberal arts are still the nucleus of
the subject curriculum. In subject curriculum each subject is taught as a
separate unit. In this pattern of curriculum organization a student may take
four or five different subjects each taught by a different teacher and at a
separate period of the school day. Any relationship which may exist between two
or more subjects is left un-noticed by teachers who always try to think about
his own courses. The vat increase in content of all areas of life has
introduced the necessity of specialization in an educational programme. Thus we
find it necessary to train teacher’srelatively in small areas of human knowledge
but they remain ignorant in other areas. The subject curriculum has also led to
the acceptance of subject matter as the main goal to be achieved in education.
This has caused great emphasis to be given to such tasks as definition,
classification and memorization. Application, analysis and problem solving have
been largely neglected.
a.
Characteristics of Subject Curriculum:
1.
Learning subject matter is an end in itself:
Listening to lectures, studying the textbooks and studying for
examination are all practices that show the influence of the subject centered
approach. The subject teacher considers it of great importance to cover the
prescribed textbook. Since a specific amount of subject matter is to be learnt
in a set time. If subject matter has been learnt, the teacher and students feel
satisfaction.
2.
Emphasis is placed upon acquiring information for future use:
The subject matter selected for acourse, is considered to be of
value in adult living rather than child’s immediate needs. Thus adult problems
are given more weight than problems of children in youth.
3.
Progress is measured by how much of the subject a pupil as learnt:
As the subject matter is an important thing to be learnt, learning
is measured by how well the subject matter has been mastered. Frequent tests
are given to check the extent of achievement by the students.
4.
There is a predetermined uniform standard of knowledge:
Those who follow the subject centered approach strongly advocate
minimum standards. They advocate set standard for a class to be achieved by all
student in order to qualify the examination. In other words a time limit is
placed on achievements and if the pupil fails, the course must be repeated. The
teacher attempts to bring the pupil up to the set standard. Thus failures are
required to repeat a grade or they are dropped out from their institutions.
5.
Practice in skills is emphasized:
Drill in specific skills is one of the typical characteristics of
the subject curriculum. Drill session, remedial work, review work, coaching classes
are often devoted to such type of drill. This drill is given in equal amounts
to all pupils in the group.
6.
Each subject is distinct entity (unit) with a logical organization
of its own:
Emphasis is placed on the acquisition of skills, facts and information
in different logically organized subjects. The members of the staff, teaching
different subjects do not plan courses together and they do not discuss common
problems.
7.
Subject matter is selected by adults previous to the teaching,
learning situation:
As the subject matter is taught in logically organized discipline,
therefore, the content of the course is selected before it is taught. For this
purpose they receive help form subject matter, specialists, supervisors,
administrators and textbook writers.
b.
Requirements for the Optimum Operation of Subject Curriculum:
ü Trained and
specialized Teachers with mastery in different subjects, with command on
methods of teaching, are required to teach different subjects.
ü A separate
classroom for each level and section in required.
ü A fixed time
table is needed for difference subjects according to their weight age in
curriculum.
ü Special
arrangements are needed for guidance physical education, tours. Indoor and outdoor
activities and examinations etc.
ü Text books and
guide books are needed for subject curriculum.
c.
Criticism on Subject Curriculum:
Teacher exercises control over pupil experiences, activities and
conduct. The teacher follows the decision of others with regard to the
participation in planning and evaluation. The teacher makes rules for the
classrooms. Here stern discipline by the teacher which demands a quite
classroom atmosphere is the best situation for learning. Important criticisms
are given below:
1.
It is compartmentalized and fragmentary. This means that there is
no unity and continuity in subject matter. Each teacher is a specialist taking
pride only in the knowledge of his own subject and disclaiming responsibility for
any other subject. Here the learner requires only scraps of information.
2.
It ignores the interest and activities of the learner. There is an
inefficient arrangement of content for learning and use. The subjects are
logically organized.
3.
It is divorced from current social problems. The students know more
about what a few men had done in the past than about what the social
aspirations of Pakistani people are.
4.
It fails to develop habits of effective thinking. This curriculum
places emphasis on mastery of conclusions of thought rather than upon the
mastery of their processes on which the conclusion were derived. Therefore some
critics claim that subject curriculum is largely responsible for uncritical
tendencies. The usual assumption is that anyone who has mastered the facts can
think effectively, but the evidence of investigation has rejected this
assumption.
d.
Defense of Subject Curriculum:
Inspite of all that has been said, subject curriculum is defended
for the following reasons:
1.
It is not true that the child’s thinking is not improved by the
subject curriculum. Subject curriculum is more appropriate for intellectual
development. An individual learns to thinks as the physicist, botanist, and
geologist and so on. It he cannot learn so to think, the fault is to be found
in instruction and not in the curriculum pattern.
2.
The claim that it is fragmentary and compartmentalized is not true
of the subject curriculum alone. No one can study any subject at once in any
kind of curriculum. Some parts of it are emphasized, other are excluded. There
is some sort of selection and whatever is selected is separate from other
things. In a sense anything that is learnt is a fragment and it is a part of
some larger unit of things.
3.
It provides maximum security for both the teacher and the student.
The teacher knows what is expected of him to teach. The students also know what
is expected of them i.e. how much they have to cover. This provides them with a
constant source of security.
4.
It assumes a logically sound framework for the organization of
subject matter used, of cause and effect principle in science and the
chronological order of the historical events (may not be psychologically sound)
but they assumed an order and are consistent to learning experiences, which
might otherwise be order less.
5.
Its evaluation is very easy. Achievement based testing is the only
type of evaluation needed for the mastery of the subject matter.
6.
It has a bright future. Subject approach is useful for
specialization in any branch of knowledge. The continued increase in the store
of human knowledge will cause specialization to become more effective.
2.2 Teacher-Centered
Curriculum:
Teachers
participate in a multiplicity of curriculum activates at a classroom level.
These are the very substance of their daily teaching tasks and include such
activities as selection of specific content, selection of teaching strategies,
use of audio-visual aids and so on. In recent years teachers have become
increasingly involved in a broader level of curriculum decision-making such as
involvement in major curriculum projects. It mostly involves few teachers,
although some teachers participate in syllabus committees. At the school level,
however, staff members are becoming more responsible for a vast array of
curriculum decision.
In Victoria,
South Australia and Tasmania, where evolution of curriculum decision-making has
been underway, schools have considerably greater responsibility for curriculum
development. In schools in these states teachers have become involved,
willingly or unwillingly, in more school-level curriculum decision-making.
Regardless of
the state in which one teaches, it has become obvious in recent years that all
teachers are participating more in curriculum decision-making at the school
level. The nature of this participation may be seen in the various roles that
teachers adopt in the decision-making process. It is suggested that teachers
may participate in any combination of our curriculum decision-making roles at
the school level:
1.
Implementers.
2.
Adapters.
3.
Developers.
4.
Researchers.
1. Implementers.
As an
‘implementer’ or ‘receiver’, the teacher’s role is to apply the developed
curriculum elsewhere. In this role the teacher has a minimum of responsibility
and involvement in the curriculum development phase of the curriculum process,
though he has a significant role in the application phase of this process.
2. Adapters.
As an adapter,
the role of the teacher is just the same as implementer. This is some what
conceptual term which indicates that the teachers become ready to accept the
curriculum in order to implement it.
3. As a developer,
the teacher’s role is to take part in the curriculum development process. In
Pakistan, some representative teachers are being invited to attend various
meetings held by the higher authorities in order to make contributions in the
curriculum development or curriculum evaluation process.
4. Researchers.
Curriculum is a
dynamic process. Keeping in view this characteristic, there is a need to
conduct research in order to bring about desirable changes in the curriculum.
Teachers in most of the countries and also in Pakistan, are taking part in
various types of researches in curriculum development process. The nature of
these researcher are.
i.
To review the curriculum.
ii.
To evaluate the curriculum.
iii.
To change the curriculum etc.
a. Advantages of
Teacher’s centered Approach:
ü
As the curriculum is designed by the teacher, it become easy to
achieve the desired goals.
ü
Subject matter become psychologically sound due to its relevance
with interests, needs and level of the children.
ü
Content/Subject matter is logically arranged.
ü
Irrelevant material/Subject matter is avoided.
ü
Teachers feel comfortable and confident in the classroom
activities.
ü
Democracy is encouraged.
ü
Co-operation is developed.
ü
Society/Community is also involved (directly or indirectly) in the
development of curriculum.
ü
No objection is raised by the teacher in connection with the
availability of sources and resources.
b. Limitations:
If this
approach is followed in Pakistan then the following limitations may hinder the
process.
ü
A change in the attitude on the part of learners, teachers and
community is difficult to develop.
ü
Lack of sources and resources.
ü
Hindrance due to rigid administration, planning and management.
ü
It will become difficult to maintain a common standard in various
institutions.
ü
The existing curriculum for the teaching training institutions is
not suitable for the teacher centered approach.
ü
A drastic change in the examination system/evaluation will be
required.
2.3 Learner-Centered
Curriculum:
Supporters of
these curriculum designs generally view society in democratic terms and
perceive individuals as being naturally good. Hence learner-centered designs
emphasize individual development and their approach is to organize the
curriculum on the basis of learners needs, interests and purposes. As a result,
there are essential differences between this approach and the subject-centered
designs.
The movement away from the traditional curriculum of school
subjects has usually been towards a programme that emphasizes the interests and
needs of students. This approach was used in the eighteenth century by Rousseau
in the education of Emile, by Pestalozzi in the next century in Switzerland,
and to an extent by Dewy in his laboratory School in 1896-1904. During the
present century, each of the designs we have considered other than the subjects
designs that more directly use learner needs and interests as a base. Variously
called child-centered, and, more recently, open, alternative, and humanistic
education. We believe that all of these twentieth-century efforts reflect, the
influenceof Dewey. In Experience and Education, Dewey included such key
statements as these: “a coherent theory of experience, affording positive direction
to selection and organization of appropriate educational methods and materials.
It is required by the attempt to give new direction to the work of the schools”
and it is a cardinal principle of education that the beginning of instruction
shall be made with the experience of learners which they already have; that
this experience and the capacities that have been developed during its course
provide that starting point for l further learning. Some of the child-centered
activity programmes developed by Dewey’s followers lacked the attention to
substantive material and continuity of child growth and development, advocated
by Dewey. The current emphasis on student-centered programmes may not always
acknowledge the Dewey’s philosophy. But Dewey’s influence on the movement to
incorporate more student-serving learning opportunities into the curriculum has
been greatly involved.
The association
for the Advancement of Progressive Education formed in 1919, had as its aim
“The development of the individual, based upon the scientific study of his
mental, physical, spiritual, and social characteristics and needs. The views of
this association, later called the Progressive Education Association (PEA),
were consonant with those of Dewey’s as indicated by their principles:
1.
Freedom to develop naturally.
2.
Interest the motive of all work.
3.
The teacher a guide, not a task-master.
4.
Scientific study of pupil development.
5.
Greater attention to all that affects the child’s physical
development.
6.
Co-operation between school and home to meet the needs of
child-life.
7.
The progressive school a leader in educational movement.
To some extent,
the principles were prophetic as commission of the PEA formulated and carried
out the celebrated Eight-year Study during the 1930s. The subsequent history of
the association, with a change of name in 1944 and its final demise in 1955, is
well documented by Cremin. To some extent the fortunes of curriculum designs
attending to the needs and interests of students paralleled those of the PEA.
The aim of
using the learner-centered focus has resulted from a tendency on the part of
curriculum planners to interpret the needs and interests design as one based on
common needs and interests of learners rather than on those of the particular
population to be served. Reflected in curriculum plans, this interpretation
could and sometimes did, become the rationale for teaching what had been taught
before or for implementing some other designs that did not involve the study of
children’s needs and interest. Research in this area in recent years, however,
has made it possible for curriculum planners to develop a better base for
student-centered designs. Modern learning theory and widespread dissatisfaction
of students and their parents with traditional practice are moving curriculum
and instruction toward designs that focus on genuine student needs and
interests.
a. Characteristic
Feature:
A curriculum
design focused on individual needs and interests/activities has these
characteristic features.
1.
The curriculum plan is based on knowledge of learner’s needs and
interests in general and involves diagnosis of the specific needs and interests
of the population served by the plan.
2.
The curriculum planis highly flexible, with built-in provisions for
development and modification to conform to the needs and interests of
particular learner’s andwith many options available to the learners. In fact, the
learner may develop his or her own curriculum plan in some designs, but with
guidance in selecting options and in planning.
3.
The learner is consulted and instructed individually at appropriate
points in the curriculum and instructional process.
Curriculum
designs focused on individual needs and interests/activities make frequent
though not exclusive use of a student activity instructional approach. However,
other approaches are used; for example, a student interested in pursuing the
study of a particular subject might use a discipline approach. Or, a student
interested in learning a skill could use a module developed through an
instructional system design.
The Dewey
School at the University of Chicago, which was in operation from 1896 to 1904,
seems to have illustrated some peculiar features. In theory and practice this
school aimed at the progressive growth of children toward responsible
participation in present and future social life. Himes wrote that “the school
was not primarily child-centered or subject-centered, it was
community-centered. However, he presented it as a first and exemplary
illustration of the children’s “interest and need emphasis in progressive
education” and has given its accomplishments.
The “project
method” was advocated by Kilpatrick, a leading inter-preter of Dewey.
Learner
centered approach is an example of the applications of needs and interests
(activities) approach. This was applied in elementary schools. The subject
matter/disciplines approach, organized discourages the learner centered
approach. In advanced countries a number of curriculum reforms emerged in the
experimental schools as teachers worked to meet the needs and interests of
students. Subject barriers were lowered or removed as teachers, combined
subjects to study social problems identified by students.
Students in the
experimental schools were more successful in college. This practice has ever
lasting effect on secondary education.
b. Applications of
learner Centered Curriculum:
We have already
cited many applications of the needs and interests/activities design. Here we
significance for the future. In doing so, we should also note that the chief
limitation of this design is its possible neglect of social goals. If the needs
and interests are kept in view, principle is fully utilized. If learning
opportunities are not based on needs and interests of learners then there is no
assurance fo the learners to become well equipped to participate effectively in
social activity. Particularly those activities are required in which the
students are to be involved as adults and good citizens. Hence we see the needs
and interests design as especially appropriate for the personal development
domain and for some aspects of the continued learning skills and
specializations only, but not for the social competence domain.
The most common
approach to meet the needs and interests of learners is the grouping of
students for special programmes believed by the planners to match the needs and
interests of the students concerned. Multiple curricula in colleges and
diversification of courses at secondary and higher levels are providing
approaches to individualization. Efforts of these approaches type are also
represented by a multiplicity of programmes for such special group as the
academically talented, the disadvantaged, the gifted, the mentally, handicapped, minority, cultural and ethnic groups, the physically
handicapped, the socially and emotionally maladjusted, underachievers, and
others, these various programmes have generally included curriculum plans that
focus on the needs and interests of learners within the categories, this is our
first characteristic feature of the needs and interests design. But these
approaches do not necessarily possess the flexibility of student involvement in
planning that we also consider one of the important characteristics.
The predominant
use of the needs and interests design in curriculum planning is in the
provision of options for individual students. For example, the middle schools
provide many special interest activates, exploratory courses. And other
experiences aimed at giving each student opportunities amide at giving each
student opportunities to explore and deepen his or her own interests. The
system of elective courses in high schools and colleges, as well as the wide
range of activities open to students, is currently being expanded by the
offering of mini-course planned for students to fit their special needs and
interests accordingly.
Currently the
movement in higher education and expansion of it by “Open University”
arrangements illustrates the feature of the needs and interests design. Drunker
(1969) argues for continuing education which assumes “that the more experience
I life and work people have, the more eager they will be to learn and the more
capable they will be of learning. Mondale (1970) advocated a concept of
lifelong learning as inclusive of many separate programmes and concepts that
have developed in recent years. “He included” adult basic education. Occupation
training, independent study, parent education, education for personal
development, remedial education, continuing education, and education for groups
with special needs. To arrange programmes to meet these various needs and
interests, according to Mondale, demands the very best thinking of our most
creative educator.
Curriculum
plans emphasizing the option concept can and generally do have the three
features of needs and interests/activities design:
1.
The options are based on knowledge of learner characteristic.
2.
Scheduling and other arrangements facilitate ready selection and
choice of options, with counseling services available to help students.
3.
Students are actively involved in planning and evaluating the
options in general and for themselves in particular.
2.4 Activity Based Curriculum:
The Activity
Based Curriculum has also been given the name of a project curriculum or an
experience curriculum but the name activity is a fundamental conception. An
Activity Curriculum has a long history. The title “Activity Curriculum”,
however, did not come into general use before 1920, although Dewey used the
expression “Activity Programme” as early as 1897 in a talk to the parents and
teachers at his laboratory school in Chicago (U.S.A). Activity is the natural
urge of the child. He wants to do things by himself. When curricular material
is translated in terms of activity, it is known as activity curriculum.
Learning of the prescribed material takes place through activities. Activity is
used as a media or means for imparting knowledge and skills.
Activity is the
greatest motivation, provided the child enjoys the freedom of expressing
himself fully but activity should not be considered as synonym for play. It is
rather a play way of learning things. The emphasis is on the way and then the
activity becomes educative.
Activity should
not merely be considered as physical activity. By activity we mean physical as
well as intellectual activity. The educator (teacher) should engage pupils in
activities in such a way that while manual skills are gained there should be
mental satisfaction found in the work. The students should not be passive
listener they should be active participants in the process of learning. True
learning is experiencing, while activity is the process then experience becomes
the product of activity. Activity results in experience, in fact activity and
experience cannot be separated from each other. A purposeful activity must end
in gainful experience. The school must, therefore, plan its activities in such
a way that students gain mastery on various experiences. Such type of projects
should be completed under a problematic situation in a natural setting.
a.
Characteristics of Activity Curriculum:
1.
Children’s Interest Determines the Educational Programme:
The primary
principle of the activity curriculum is that the interests and purposes of
children determine the educational programme. The basic principle of the
activity programme refers to the felt needs of children and not of adults.
Because the educational are aimed at doing something in the best interest of
the children and nor for an adults only. The content of an activity curriculum
hence, is determined on the basis of the interests of children. Children are
always actively engaged in doing something. Some interests are always present.
It is the task of the teacher to discover these interests and to build
educational activities upon them.
Purposes of
children are to be distinguished from whims. Whims are fleeting interests of
children which must not be considered as basis of an educational programme.
Purposes are the intended courses of action. These intended courses of actions
are accepted after their consequences are reviewed. These purposes provide a
basis of an educational programme. The subject matter is a mean of fulfilling
the purposes of an individual or a group. In the course of doing things
children need subject matter and as a result of manipulating subject matter
children learn within the bounds of group interests. The teacher’s
responsibility is to find out the interest of individual students and of the
groups. He helps children to select the most worth wile of these interests for
study. Building a cage for an animal, making preparation for a field trip,
writing letter to make an appointment for interview, planning for an effective
student’s organization, gathering information on a current political affair,
running a school store, making a garden, planning family budget and white
washing are all purposeful activities.
2.
The Activity Curriculum is not planned in Advance:
The teacher
works with the individuals and in group of individuals to discover their
interests. He guides them in making selections from among these interests. He
helps the individual or group to plan and carry out the activities required in
the pursuit of these interests. He also guides the individual or group in
assessing what they have accomplished. These responsibilities require that the
teachers make plans for their own activities in the classrooms. Although
teacher does not come into the classroom with a preplanned subject matter. He
does come with ideas and a background of experience of the students and their
interests. These are his working tools.
3.
Activities are Planned Co-operatively by Students and the Teacher:
The teacher and
the class plan cooperatively what needs to be done? First of all objectives are
determined cooperatively, and then the class considers means of teaching the
objectives e.g. a group has determined to improve the beauty of its own
classroom. The class may be divided into small groups so that students can talk
with their seat mates.
A student from
each of these groups can then report to the total class. There should be ample
opportunity to organize for investigating, seeking information, selecting
materials, interviewing people and carrying on the activities needed to solve
the problem, in each of these steps the students take part in making decisions
and they assume full responsibility for it. Here the teacher is to guide the
students in learning how to select group leaders and how to make intelligent
decisions. Most important is the quality of thinking that goes on the group.
There is a give and take of ideas. Group opinions of different people are
weighed. It is really a laboratory for learning group processes.
4.
Problem solving is the Dominant Method of Activity Curriculum:
When a group
decides to do something, it frequently happens that difficulties are
encountered. The task of overcoming a difficulty provides a problem. In the
activity curriculum, the teaching learning process consists largely of problem
solving. In the pursuit of interests various difficulties will arise. The
teacher and his students are to find ways of overcoming these obstacles. As the
interests of children lead to problems requiring a great diversity of content
so the subject matter from almost every field of knowledge is used in the
activity curriculum. But the subject matter is studied as a means of solving
problems and not as an end in itself.
5.
The Teacher Assists the Group as a Resource Person:
Here the
teacher works as a guide. He serves in this capacity to small groups, to
individual pupils and in the discussions led by pupils. He sometimes leads the
discussion, he helps the students to analyses the problem. He works with them
in improving their skills. He is a part of the total learning situation rather
than task master.
6.
Practice and Individual Assistance are Provided as Needed:
In activity
curriculum the need for practice grows out of the learning situation. As the
pupils show the need for working on spellings of certain words, on grammar, or
on punctuation, the teacher gives them the opportunity to learn and practice
these skills. Lesson grows out of the ongoing work of the classroom in a
functional way. If the pupils ask the teacher to help them in writing a letter
to invite a speaker into the classroom, the teacher of the activity curriculum
will not write the letter for the students, but will help them to find the
answer for themselves. He will help them in understanding when and where
punctuation is needed. He will work with them on the use of words and thus he
will encourage them to write a letter inviting the guest speaker.
b.
Requirements for Optimum Operation of Activity Curriculum:
1.
Training of Teachers:
Teachers should
have a broad general education with specialized training in child and
adolescent development, guidance and methods of teaching.
2.
Physical Features of the School:
Building,
grounds and classrooms should be large enough to permit as many activities as
possible. The rooms will be well lighted and will have ample facilities for
displays and decorations devised by children. The school grounds should also
lend themselves too many uses. In addition to the usual space for outdoor class
work and for countless other outdoor activities in which children may engage as
they follow their interests. The realization of these possibilities will
require several times the space now given to most school sites. Tentatively ten
acres of land (one acre= 4940 sq. yards) would likely be the minimum to meet
the needs of an activity curriculum. To those critics who criticize the
activity curriculum as the most expensive pattern of curriculum organization,
the advocates of an activity programme will give a reply that there is no such
thing as “a good cheap education:.
