Education Psychology & Method of Education psychology

By Sultan Muhammad

TABLE OF CONTENTS


1. Meaning of Psychology 1
2. Education and Psychology 1
3 Contribution of Educational Psychology 2
4 Methods of educational psychology 4
5 Observation Method 6
6 Experimental Method 8
7 Clinical Method 10
8 Case Study Method 10
9 References 12



















Educational Psychology & Methods of educational psychology


Meaning of Psychology

The word “psychology” comes form the Greek word (Psyche mean Soul, Logos mean Science), thus the meaning of Psychology is the science of soul.

Education and Psychology

Psychology is the science of behaviour, the activities of animate creature, which can be observed and measured in an objective way.
Education in the narrow sense is the modification of behaviour of children in a controlled environment. To shape the behaviour of the subject and bring some positive or negative changes, it is necessary to study the science of behaviour. The developmental stages and characteristics of children are very essential factors from which the teacher must aware in order to be a successful teacher. If the teacher has no knowledge of children psychology, how can we expect from him that he would succeed in bringing about the desirable changes in children?

Definition of Educational Psychology;

Educational psychology is the application of psychological findings in the field of education. Educational psychology is the systematic study of the development of the individual within the educational settings. It helps the teacher to understand the students and enhance their skills.

Educational psychology is an applied discipline which combines the two different fields of education and psychology. It is the scientific study of human behaviour by which it can be understood, predicted and directed by education to achieve goals of life.

Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.”


Contribution of Educational Psychology

One simple question may be asked as to why educational psychology should be taught to prospective teachers in training colleges. The educational psychology helps the teachers in the following ways;


1. To understand developmental characteristics

Children pass through different stages of development in life as infancy, childhood and adolescence. These developmental stages have their own characteristics and demands.

2. To understand the nature of class room learning

With the help of education psychology the teacher understand the students and their need and problems, it help teacher in learning process in general and class-room learning in particular.

3. To understand individual differences

With the help of psychology teacher understand the individual’s differences. Teacher faces a class of 30 to 50 students who have a different range of individual differences. Teacher with the knowledge of education psychology and individual differences may adjust his teaching to the needs and requirements of the class.

4. To understand effective teaching methods

Every day experience shows that lack of proper methods of teaching sometimes results in failure of communication in the classroom. The educational psychology gives us the knowledge of appropriate methods of teaching. It helps in developing new strategies of teaching.

5. knowledge of mental health

Mental health of the student and teacher is very important for efficient learning. With the help of educational psychology, the can understand the various factors, which are responsible for the mental health and maladjustment.

6. Curriculum construction

Psychological principles are also used in formulating curriculum for different stages.

7. Measurement of learning out-comes

Psychological tools help the teachers to evaluate the learning out-come of the students. it helps the teacher to evaluate his own performance.

8. Guidance for the education of exceptional children

Most important contribution of educational psychology is the provision and organization of the educational psychology is the provision and organization of the education for the education of sub normal children.


Methods of educational psychology

Different types of techniques are used by researchers to collect data and conduct research studies. With the increasing use of educational technology in education, psychology and other social sciences, new research strategies are evolved.

Following are the important methods and techniques of collecting data are:

1. Introspection
2. Observation
3. Clinical method
4. Case study
5. Survey or differential methods
6. Scientific or experimental method

Etc


1. Introspection

Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was formerly used in philosophy, and then in psychology to collect data about the conscious experience of the subject. Introspection means to see with in one self or self observation. To understand one’s own mental health and the state of mind. This method was developed by the structuralists in psychology who defined psychology as the study of conscious experiences of the individual. Introspection has some advantages and disadvantages;

Merits:

1. It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult by other methods.

2. It is an easy method and needs no equipment

3. It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and observation method

Demerits:

1. This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific objectivity

2. The most serious objection against this method is that human mind is not static like inanimate objects such as stone or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant changes so when one attempts to introspect, the sate of mental process disappears and it becomes a retrospect.

3. The human mind is divided in two parts. One is his own mental operation and the other is the object to which this mental operation is directed. To expect any individual to attend the workings of his own mind during a mental process, specially in a complex and emotional state such as anger or fear, is a mistaken idea. Ross commenting on the limitation of introspection said, “ The observer and the observed are the same, the mind is both the field and the instrument of observation

4. Introspection can not be employed on children and insane propel.
5. There are conflicting reports, as regards the findings collected from different introspectionists.




2. Observation

With the development of psychology as an objective science of behaviour, the method of introspection was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behaviour. Observation literally means looking outside oneself. It is a very important method for collecting data in almost all type of research studies. Different type of Observation used in research, direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, natural or artificial, participant and non-participant. But there are two basic types of observation. They are;

1. Natural observation

In natural observation the observer observe the specific behavioral and characteristics of subjects in natural settings and the subject does not aware of the fact that their behaviour is being observed by someone. The teacher can observe the behaviour of his student in the playground or in any other social gathering without making him conscious. Natural observation can be done any where with out any tools.

2. Participant observation

In participant observation the observer became the part of the group which he wants to observe.
Observational study is particularly very important and produces significant results on developmental characteristics of children. No doubt that observation is a scientific technique of collecting data, whose results can be verified and relied upon to locate behavioral problems


Merits:

1. this type of observation is a natural and normal way of knowing the external world but also the mind of the subject

2. This method is objective in nature and free form personal bias and prejudice.

3. Through this method we can observe as many children as we like

4. This method id quite suitable for children and abnormal person who can not be examined through introspection.

5. this can be used any time and anywhere

Demerits:

1. Observation is useful only for collecting data about overt behaviour which is manifested in a number of activities. This overt behaviour does not provide reliable information regarding the internal mental process. We can only guess about the mental state of the individual on the basis of overt behaviour which may or may not be true. It becomes very difficult to draw any conclusion in case of adults who can hide their actual behaviour in the presence of the observer.

2. Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of this method. The observer may interpret his sensation of external stimulus on the bias of his past experience. He may be biased in his interpretation. It has also been found in some studies that strong personal interests tend to make researcher see only those things which he wants to see.

3. Observation is subject to two types of errors, sampling error and observer error. The first error occurs because of inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The observer error may be due to knowledge and background of the situation to be observed. Because some time the observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence he may commit error.



3. Experimental Method


This method has been developed in psychology by the continuous efforts by psychologists to make objective and scientific study of human behaviour. One of the major contributions of the behaviorism is the development of experimental method to understand, control and predict behaviour. It is the most precise, planned systematic observation. The experimental method uses a systematic procedure called experimental design. Experimental design provides important guide lines to the researcher to carry out his research systematically. The lay out of the design depends on the nature of the problem that an investigator wants to investigate. The lay out or design of the experimental method is as follows:

1. selecting a research topic
2. formulating hypotheses
3. selecting an appropriate design
4. collect data
5. analyzing and interpreting data
6. discussion and conclusions

Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in the classroom or anywhere else in the community. Experimentation involves comparison between behaviour of a control group and that of an experimental group.
Hypotheses have a rational base or they emerged from a frame work of theory or preliminary experimentation. An experiment involves two or more variables for example; incentives have a measurable impact on learning. The variables whose effects are being studied are called independent variable.

Merits:

1. This method is the most systematic procedure of solving problems. It provides reliable information.
2. it is a revisable method
3. it makes psychology a scientific study

4. It provides objective and precise information about the problems.
5. it give observer easy approach to the mind of an individual
6. It provides innovative ideas for the further experimentation.
7. It enable us to control and direct human behaviour
8. it is applicable in educational, individual and social problems



Demerits:

1. It is arranged in a laboratory like situation. This situation is artificially arranged. Behaviour is a natural phenomena and it may change under artificial environment.

2. This method is time consuming and costly. Moreover it requires specialized knowledge and skills.

3. Psychologists have criticized the fact that mostly the experiments have conducted on rats, cats and dogs. The results are conducted and then applied on human beings.

4. It some times interferes with the very thing that we are trying to observe.


4. Clinical Method

This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the behaviour problems of maladjusted and deviant cases. The main objective of this method is to study individual case or cases of group to detect and diagnose their specific problems and to suggest therapeutic measures to rehabilitate them in their environment.

It involves the following steps;
1. Interview
2. Information gathering
3. A hypothesis formulate
4. Diagnoses are made
5. Planned a treatment programme


5. Case Study

Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of techniques are employed including personal interviews, psychometric tests, direct observation, and archival records. Case studies are most often used in psychology in clinical research to describe the rare events and conditions of the subject; case study is specially used in education psychology. It deals in education the following problems;

Lack of interest in students
Aggressive behaviour in student
Day dreaming
Poor academic performance
Emotional problem
Social problems
Empathetic understanding
Find the problem
Establish report
Treatment

Etc














References

Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill.

Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist,

Bloom, B. S. (1984). The two sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher,

Education of Slow Learner

Education of Slow Learner

by

Sultan Muhammad Khan

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Objectives

3. To identify the causes of slow

4. Learning Illness that cause slow learning

5. Identification of slow leaner in the class

6. Evaluation

7. Language development Problem

8. Reading problem

9. Teaching Spelling

10. Teaching writing

11. Social education

12. References

Introduction

Slow learners are those pupils who have limited ability due to different reason in the education process. Slow learner is advance word for “backward” or “mentally retarded” and “Educationally subnormal” (E.S.N.)

There are different reasons for slow learning, some time it is due to their mental ability, some time it due to their background, illiterate parents, culture problems, avoiding by the parents in early child hood, between ages 2 to 6 years. Some time it due to mental illness. These are different causes of the slow learner.

The purpose of this assignment is to determine the problems of the slow learners and the methods of education, How to teach them, so they can be better person of the society.

Objectives of this assignment

2. Identify the causes of slow learning

3. Identification of the slow leaner in the class

4. Problems of slow learner

5. Explorer the method of effective teaching for slow learner

Definition:

According to experts, children who for various reason, fall behind in their school work and require special teaching are called (educationally subnormal) E.S.N.

“Slow learners are children who are doing poorly in school, yet are not eligible for special education; their intelligence test scores are too high for consideration as a child with mental retardation” (Mercer, 1996) (MacMillan, Gresham, Bocian, & Lambros, 1998).

• Although slow learners may have special educational needs, they do not fit neatly into the special education system (MacMillan, Gresham, Bocian, & Lambros, 1998).

To identify the causes of slow learning

Showing the sign of slow learner doesn’t mean that the child is slow learner, there are other factors that could cause the process of slow learning;

Emotional growth

Feelings about one self and the developing of these feeling positive or negative is called emotional growth, Emotional and social development are often link together because they are relevant. In the initial stages child learn the Feelings of trust, fear, and love later on as he grow he develop the feeling of friendship, pride, and relationship which also guide toward social-emotional development of the child.. if the child is ignore in this stage and proper care is not provided to them, they build negative emotion and they ovoid trust initially parents and later on other people, they isolated them self from the outer world. Furthermore, a neglected child, feel him self rejected, and unsecured, it affect the developing skills of the child to socialize with others children.
In this stage the changes are very rapid in child and every change bring new change in the behaviour of the child and each change brings about new skills. Child develop multi skills in this stage, the most important one is positive feelings about self and trust building with others

Environment

Children react to their environment in early stages and he learns from the environment in which they grow. Create a safe environment for them and reduce the stress on your child and remove the things which are physical threats to the children e.g.: abusive behaviour and unsafe toys etc

With whom the child is spending his time, what is their intellectual level. And how they treat the child, when children have a secure Environment, it flourishes their abilities in positive direction. Studies show those children who have better environment show better confidence in life and in education

Growth and opportunities of Learning

Opportunities of learning is very necessary for the development of children cognitive abilities, Parents should provide rich learning environment to their children and open new windows of learning opportunities for them. They need simple playable activities and games to develop their brains, Show them new things and arrange new activities for them to enhance their thinking skill.

Absenteeism

Absenteeism from the school is another factor which can effect the ability of learning of a child, when a child is often absent from the class, he could catch with other student in school, he need extra home work with the help of parents to cover his short coming other wise he lose his self confidence in class, due to which he isolate himself from his class fellows and he became a slow learner.

Defective Vision

Defective vision is another possible cause of slow learning, it affect child’s growth and development and the ability to function in society. It also lead to effect self-esteem and confidence of the child which could lead to depression if not treated in early stages and child left behind in the class.

Resource Problem

Without proper Resources parent could not afford to provide better opportunities of learning to their children due to which the child lose his self-esteem. Availabilities of good books and other learning material which is necessary for the learning process of the child.

Illiterate Parents

Another problem in some cases are illiterate parent, those parents who are mentally backward and also have no education, effect the education of the child. Initial six years are very important and crucial period of child life, in this stage development of brain take place. Careful treatment is required to develop his skills, which help him in the later age in school and college

Untrained Teacher

Untrained teacher is another reason, without proper training a teacher could not understand the psychology of the child and his problems, what the possibilities are and why the child is not learning. A train teacher could understand the problem and eradicate it.

Class Size

Over crowded class is another problem which affects the learning process and lead to the product of slow learner. Slandered class size should from twenty to thirty students per class, but student exceed in the class teacher could not give attention to every student and nor he could evaluate every student due to that reason some student left behind.

Busy parent or no time for children

When parents have no time for their children and they are busy in their job it also leads a child to loneliness and isolated. He could not share his problems with his parents. The problem is much severed in case children age three to six years, because in this age they need full attention of the parents. It is the age of their development. They learn many things from parents.

Violence in School

Violence in schools is another factor which causes slow learning in students. Violence affect the learning abilities of the students, Exposure to violence is psychologically toxic. This exposure may lead to emotional problems and aggression, it also effect cognitive, psychological and learning process

Family Size

Family size also play a major role in the development of the child, in a small family a child will get attention of the parents and enough resources will be available to him. In case of large family size, children face many problems which effect there abilities e.g. emotional problem, resource problem etc.

Health Problem

Poor Health is also a hurdle in the growth and development of a child, which lead to the process of slow learning.

Deprived Culture

Evidence show that deprived cultured and Background may also cause the process of slow learning

Inadequate Teaching Staff

Lack of teachers in school is also a cause of slow learning, due to shortage of teacher in schools, the student left behind from other students in competition

Poor Leadership

Poor Leadership on behalf of teacher and head teacher as well as on the part of parents

Teaching Method

Teaching method is the most important factor in slow learning; a train teacher can understand the problem of the student and remove that problem by a better teaching style, which suite to the student need and mind. A good teacher will always use different methods in class so every student understand and learn. On the other hand those teachers who use one method of teaching create slow learner in the class because every student learn in different style and method.

Course

Students are subjected to inappropriate textbooks, and teaching material. Course should be design with easy to difficult approach so students understand what teachers are teaching them. Inappropriate course material would increase the number of slow learner in the class

Transfer of Teachers

Frequent transfer of teachers leaves no room for the development of mutual understanding and respect for each other. The moment they start to understand each other, the teacher is transferred. Once this process is repeated a few times with a student, the student closes himself to teachers in future.

Fear Complex

To camouflage their inability teachers grow a fence of fear around them selves. They resort to indiscriminate punishments resultantly some of the students run away from schools and the rest become docile with no interest in education but to spend time aimlessly.

Psychological Problems

Students due to high expectations of their families and absence of guidance for both the parents and students experience a lot of psychological stress, which has a retarding effect on their educational development

Medium of Instruction

Medium of instruction is also a big problem for some students. Therefore it is necessary to use mother tongue for the education so student understand it and they do not lose their precious time on language learning.

Communication Problem

Communication gaps between students, teachers and parents. Due to this gap neither the teachers nor the parents come to understand the students, resultantly they enforce upon them their wishes. This enforcement develops a rebellious or a docile nature in the students, which retard the positive abilities.

Deprived cultured

Evidence show that deprived cultured background may also cause the problem

Illness that cause slow learning

• Alexia

• Dyslexia

• Strephosymbolia

• Other Inherited parents

1. Alexia

Definition: “A language impairment caused by injury to the areas of the brain that process visual language. In its acœpure “form, the injury prevents people from being able to read, but not from being able to write.

Also Known As: word blindness, pure word blindness, Text blindness or visual aphasia.” (Jose Vega M.D., Ph.D)

2. Dyslexia

“Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that mainly affects reading and spelling. Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties in processing word-sounds and by weaknesses in short-term verbal memory; (SPELLIT Research Report )

The effects may be seen in spoken language and written language, Dyslexia tends to run in families

Using structured and multi sensory methods to improve the literacy skills of E.S.N Students in early ages.

3. Strephosymbolia

strephosymbolia “ A typical symptom of dyslexia in which letters are transposed, reversed, or confused; more generally a disorder in which objects are perceived in mirror image” (ANDREW M. COLMAN)

Identification of slow leaner in the class

Early diagnosis of slow learner child is very necessary between the ages of 2 to 6 years. How teacher or parents could identify, that the child is slow learner, with a careful observation they could easily identified signs of slow learner,

1.Speech defect

2. Language development problem (broken sentences)
3. Assessments the level of vocabulary ( vocabulary limited)
4. verbal abilities
5. Short sentences, grammatically incorrect
6. Child Behaviour
7. Spelling Mistake
8. Interaction with other children
9. Class room Discussion
10. Reading problem
11. Interest
12. Slow response / decision making

If it is identified that a child is slow learner, proper evaluation should be done to identify the weakness of the child, the following method can utilized for the evaluation purpose.

Evaluation

* Intelligence test

* Individuals intelligence test

* The Stanford-binet scale of intelligence test

(The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a standardized test that assesses intelligence and cognitive abilities in children and adults aged two to twenty three years, determining the presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay)

* Group test

* Attainment test

* Vocabulary test

* Test of Visual perception

* Spelling test

* Personality test

* Children Behaviour questionnaire

* Diagnostic test in reading and arithmetic

* Assessments of level of vocabulary, verbal abilities

* Attitude and interest

After evaluation and identification of slow learner the questions arise. How to handle these types of children in school environment?

How to teach them? What type of class they need?

Expert suggest that student should be not increase from 20 in class and different style of teaching has been suggested for different subject

Language Development Problem

Slow learner show the sign of slow learning in very begging during infancy, when child try to talk, parents should carefully observe the child and if they find that child is not able to talk they should contact doctor to find the reason, because early diagnosis in the initial 2-6 years good for the betterment of the child and step could be taken to improve the mental condition of the child, through medical care or psychological. The sign of language development problem in initial age are;

• Speech defect: speech problem child will be not able to pronounce correct word,
• Vocabulary limited: child will use Limited word for expression
• Short sentences
• Some children will not understand some words

How to improve the language development problem of the child in school level

· Teacher should pronounce the word clearly for the student and ask the student to repeat the word

· Teacher should used visual aid, it would help the student to understand it easily and memories it for long time

· Teacher should used flash cards for teaching Difficult words

· Use of memory cards and memory games

· Class room Discussion

· Stories-telling should be encouraged in class

· Dramatic activities

· Oral question and answer and understand them

· The ability to recognise Different pictures

· Listening and understanding skills should be developed

· Reading with meaning

Reading Problem

• There are different method of teaching for reading problem, how to teach to a group or class of students. Expert suggest multiple teaching style because each student learn through different method, some student could learn better with one method, other will learn with other method. Teacher should be aware of the individual differences, For teaching reading to slow learner the following method should be used:
• Teacher should use Charts to teach Words to E.S.N students.
• Teacher can also used Memory flash cards,
• Reading with meaning, is good method with which child easily understand and remember it.
• Reading stories, collecting magazines, news papers and discus them in the class room
• Pictures on wall with the stories can also help slow learner to remember and understand a word
• Reading readiness workbook
• Through activities, reading activates can also help in reading process
• Visual activities, include TV and computer can help
• finding missing parts
• Memory games
• Reading for information
• Computer games, the best method for teaching reading process. These interactive games not only help slow learner in their reading process but it also help to increase their quick decision making ability.

Reading Material:

Reading material should be selected keeping in view the interest of the student in mind. Chose difficulty level from easy to difficult approach (age wise)

Teaching Spelling,

Spelling are very necessary for slow learner, because it help to form a word, a good speller well always be a good reader and writer , therefore teacher should give attention to teaching spelling to the students.

• Teacher should write a word on board and ask to the student to write it in air, teach them the spelling in parts, so they know the sound of the word.
• Competition of spelling between the students,
• Check recheck method
• Weakly test for spelling,
• spelling games on computer, typing tutor game on computer

Teaching writing

Teaching writing require reading, understanding and spelling capabilities, if a student is good in these, he can learn writing easily, following are the few method which could be used for teaching of writing;

• Encourage their writing, ignore their mistake in early stages
• In early stages students write short sentences and grammatically incorrect sentences
• Involve student in writing small stories
• engage student in form filling, latter writing and Telegram according to their age
• Involve students in form filling, diaries writing
• Computer base writing games, where short answer are required for playing games.
• Writing in school magazine, newspaper etc
• At later time attention to the grammar, punctuation and full stop.

Social education

Social education is also very necessary for the slow learner; teacher and parent should give full attention to the social education of E.S.N. how to cross the road, how to reach home and other small thing that could help him in day to day life. It is not only the responsibility of a teacher to teach these things to slow learner but it is also the responsibility of parents too.

Teacher and parents should also involve other people to help these students e.g.

• Psychologist of the school
• Friends
• School doctor/nurse
• Other social agencies

References

Bell, P. (1970). Basic teaching for slow learners. London: Muller.

Hughes, J. (1973). The Slow Learner in Your Class (Nelson's Teacher Texts). london: Cengage Learning Australia.

Passow, H. (1972). Opening Opportunities for Disadvantaged Learners. New York: Teacher's College Press.

Growth and Development

by Sultan Muhammad

Introduction

Growth and development is the over all development of a person, physical and mental development. The process of development goes altogether in all fields, cognitive development, physical development, emotional development. When a child born it goes through different stages;

• Childhood stage
• Boyhood stage
• Mature puberty
• Adulthood stage

During all these stages child complete it growth and development and become adult.

Growth

From the very start of human life, changes start take place in human body. This physical change is known as growth. Growth is also quantitative in measure and could be seen in structural and physiological changes in the body.

The growth process is slow in nature and organized. These changes could be seen in the shape of height and weight, this phenomenon of changes in human body is called growth.

Development

With the growth process, there is another process which is called development, take place in the human body. This process is little different from growth process. With the time when changes take place in human body, human start shown other body functions, for example moving, crawl and after some time learn to stand and walk.

“Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly, predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience” E.B. Hurlock.

The change in body functions, due to the changes in structure of body parts is called development.

Different parts of growth and development

1. Physical growth and development

2. Social growth and development

3. Emotional development

4. Mental development

1. Physical growth and development

It includes changes in weight and height and growth in different body parts, with the passage of time, it mainly depend on the diet and environmental condition as well as the home condition. A rich diet will help in better growth and development of a child.

2. Social growth and development

Social growth and development is very necessary because it helps the child to understand various norms and values and became a better person of the society.

3. Emotional development

Child by birth has different natural emotions and instincts and with the time some instincts and emotions disappear while with the time some new emotion and instincts manifest, according to psychologist, emotion are related to physical changes.

Environment also plays a vital role in the development of these emotions. And with the time it became the part of human personality.

4. Mental development

In the early stages the ideas of children are vague and unclear, with time gradually, these refined. It help the child to use his senses and develop the capacity to think and understand. It impel the growth in his metal ability, by the time when child reaches puberty his intelligence, level can be defined.

The metal growth of a child starts from the very first day of his life when he born and effect his whole life.

Stages of social, physical, emotional and mental development

1. childhood (till 4 years)
2. boyhood stage ( five to ten years)
3. pre mature puberty ( to 15 year)
4. adulthood stage (after 15 year)

Childhood stage

Early childhood is the time of a tremendous growth and development across all areas. The new born baby grows into a young person who can take care of his body with the help of other. It is the primary stage in which different skill development take place. This stage stays up to the age of four to five years and According to some expert up to eight year.

Physical development childhood stage

At the time of birth male child is born up to 7,5 pound and girl up to 7 pound. The height is above 52 centimetres. With the passage of time development is quite fast. Physically, in this stage up to three years a child doubles in weight and height. Children totally depend on others in this stage

Social Development in this stage

In this stage, the children like parents, siblings, home and toys. The child understands itself but is dependent on others.

Emotional development

At this stage child had inherent emotions. This stage is considered very important for the personality’s development. It is the foundation for the child building personality.

Mental Development

Each child has inherent intelligence; they feel happy when they satisfy. They do every thing what give them happiness regardless the consequences of their actions

Boyhood stage (up to 10 years)

This period is from five to ten years,

Physical development, in the boyhood stage physical development is comparatively slower than childhood stage. Child grows at the rate of two inches per anum, especially the child grows in height in this stage.

Social development

In this stage children love to play games, children learn to adjust it self in environment and make new friends, they feel happy to participate in activities in home with parents

Emotional development

This stage is also very important in the life of a child, In this stage children are very emotional and keen to learn. In this stage they understand their relation with the other members of the society and relatives.

Mental development

At this stage up to the age six years and according to some psychologist at the age of eight years the brain complete and all five senses are developed and used. At this stage the child should be given special attention and involved him in the learning base activities to develop his brain.

5. Adolescence stage (10 to 15 year)

Adolescence is a Latin word, which derived from the word “adolescere” meaning to grow up, or grow to maturity. This period is from 10 to 15 years of age, it is a period of life between the age of child hood and adulthood

The adolescent stage is another period of accelerated growth. Individual can grow up to four inches, and increase in weight up to ten pounds per year. At the end of this stage, individuals may gain seven to nine inches in height and forty to forty five pounds in weight.

Physical Growth and Development

This stage is slow until the age of 12 years, after 12 years it speed up till the age of 15 years, in this stage individual increase in height and weight, girls growth in reproductive organs and voice became mature and start of periods, boys grow moustaches

Social development

Increase in friends in this stage, the child is attractive to opposite sex and like to here stories of heroes and fore fathers

Emotional development

This stage bring strange feeling to them, many new emotion manifested and children became very touchy, at this stage they like to talk to opposite sex, sexual desires in this stage are very power full. In this stage careful guidance of an adult is required, to help them in understanding and controlling these emotions

Mental development

Child is very suspicious about every one, he want to know about every thing, weakness in self confidence and like to talks to adults and behave like adults and very moody. At this stage child develop self willpower and determination

Adulthood age (after 15 years)

This stage begins after the age of fifteen years, this is the stage where the child crosses the stage of childhood to manhood, and became an adult. Enter in to practical life and begin facing the challenges of life, get married and starts his own family.

Physical development

Physical development is very slow at this stage and stop after a certain age, and after that it decline with the passage of time

Social Development

Get married, have children of their own and take responsibilities and become a active member of the society

Emotional development

Lack of coordination between mental and physical maturity in this stage

Mental development

Intelligence until the age of 6 to 8 years and maintain standard after that, after the age of 60 years, the stage of decline come in intelligence.

Writing Research Report

by Sultan Muhammad

Research report writing is complex procedure, it require guidance and skills to follow the rules of research report writing. The aim is to write about your research topic clearly so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research.

The Structure

A research report most contain following sections; preliminary, body and supplementary. Each of these main parts consists of a number of sections

Preliminary Material

• Title of report
• Table of Contents (optional)
• Abstract / Synopsis

Body of the Report

• Introduction
• Literature Review (some times part of Introduction)
• Methodology
• Statement of the report (what you want to do)
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendations

Supplementary material

• Appendices
• References

Steps involved in research report writing

1. Analyze your task, what are expectations from your research work. Keep in mind the following questions when evaluate the task

* The purpose of your report

· Target population

* Limitation of your study

· Out line your plan

· Collection of data

· Keep record of your visits and material

· Keep record of books for References

Preliminary Material

Title of report

• Give crystal clear information of your research topic to the reader. It should be no longer than one sentence

• Table of contents:

List of all chapters, headings, sub heading and tables/graphs and give them page numbers

Abstract

• it give a very brief overview of the whole report. The abstract should be as brief as possible, not more than one informative paragraph

it give sufficient information to the reader about the report, including what the investigation has found.

Body of report

Introduction:

Introduction gives the background information and include a brief review of the relevant literature.what is the importance of the study.

Literature Review

Review of literature related to your topic is the most important part of your research report; the researcher should search already available data on the topic. In the light of literature review the researcher may structure his findings.

Methodology

Methodology means the method the researcher used in his research; what to do and how to do

• Usually written in passive voice
• written in past tense
• Give proper reference of material from other sources.
• Relevant diagrams, graphs and charts.

Results

Here the researcher give the findings of his research with out any interpretation

Discussion

Here researcher discusses the relevance of his results and findings in the light of literature review and purpose of statement.

Conclusion

Here the researcher draws the conclusion of his study, summaries the significant of his results, findings and highlight limitation of the study

Recommendations

In this section researcher include his suggestions and recommendation in the light of his finding for the purpose of improvement.

Supplementary material

References or Bibliography

This section includes references of the related material referred in the report in APA or MLA style. For examples;

Bell, P. (1970). Basic teaching for slow learners. London: Muller.

Hughes, J. (1973). The Slow Learner in Your Class (Nelson's Teacher Texts). london: Cengage Learning Australia.

Appendices

Any other extra information the researcher wants to add in his report. only the raw data should be presented in an Appendix