Inductive Method And Deductive Approaches

Keywords;  Inductive Method And Deductive Approaches, Demerits of Inductive Method, Merits of Deductive Method, Demerits of Deductive Method, Inductive and Deductive Methods of Teaching Science,

Inductive Method And Deductive Approaches

 Inductive Method: Inductive method is an important procedure to prove a universal law. In this method, this is done by showing that if the law is true in a particular condition, then it will also prove to be true in other similar condition at any place of the world. This method proceeds from concrete to abstract and from a specific example to the universal law. As all the scientific principles and conclusions are result of induction, thus this method is considered to be one of the most important methods of teaching science. Merits of Inductive Method By making use of this method, following merits get accrue to the students as well as to teacher:

Merits of Inductive Method

A.       as this is a scientific method, thus it helps to considerable extent in developing scientific outlook among the students.

B.       This method helps to develop scientific attitude among the students.

C.   With the help of this method, teacher can develop qualities of critical thinking and habit of keen observation among the students properly and accurately.

D.    This is a very logical and psychological kind of teaching science.

E.   By this method, a very logical and psychological kind of teaching science. By this method, students get various opportunities to play an active role in learning process.

Demerits of Inductive Method This method has certain limitations, some of which are as follows:

 A.       The results or conclusions drawn from such method are not found to be final in case where the amount of data is very large in number

b.        All the topics of science cannot be dealt with this method properly

c.     This method can only be used when teacher have much time for teaching process. Deductive Method: This method is just opposite of Inductive method. Inthis method, facts are being deduced by application of established formula or experimentation. In this method, one proceed from general to particular principles, from unknown to known and from abstract to concrete facts.

Merits of Deductive Method This method has following merits:

a.    As students of lower classes are being provided with established scientific principles, thus this method can prove to be effective for them.

b.    This method is quite time saving as students are not required to analyses the universal principles.

c.   Teacher's duty or burden gets lessen to some extent by making use of this method as a result of which teachers find themselves in a comfortable and secured position.

d.   Through this method, a teacher can cover the lengthy syllabi of class in shortest period of time.

Demerits of Deductive Method This method suffers from following demerits:

a.       As the approach of this method is UN-conform and non-explanatory, because of which it is considered to be an unscientific method of teaching.

b.       Through this method, it becomes difficult for the teacher to develop scientific attitude among the students.

c.       As in this method, students do not get any opportunity toplay active role in learning process, thus, some experts consider it as UN psychological in nature. d. Rote memory is being encouraged by this method among the students as a result of which they do not become self-independent. When to Use: It can be said that on the basis of above discussion that it is not possible make use of these methods in isolation with each other. In reality, both of these methods are incomplete without the other. By combining these methods, education of science can be imparted to students of higher and

Inductive and Deductive Methods of Teaching Science

Inductive Method:

Inductive method is an important procedure to prove a universal law. In this method, this is done by showing that if the law is true in a particular condition, then it will also prove to be true in other similar condition at any place of the world. This method proceeds from concrete to abstract and from a specific example to the universal law.

As all the scientific principles and conclusions are result of induction, thus this method is considered to be one of the most important methods of teaching science.

Merits of Inductive Method

By making use of this method, following merits get accrue to the students as well as to teacher:

a.       As this is a scientific method, thus it helps to considerable extent in developing scientific outlook among the students.

b.       This method helps to develop scientific attitude among the students.

c.       With the help of this method, teacher can develop qualities of critical thinking and habit of keen observation among the students properly and accurately.

d.       This is a very logical and psychological kind of teaching science.

e.       By this method, students get various opportunities to play an active role in learning process.

Demerits of Inductive Method

This method has certain limitations, some of which are as follows:

a.       The results or conclusions drawn from such method are not found to be final in case where the amount of data is very large in number.

b.       All the topics of science cannot be dealt with this method properly.

c.       This method can only be used when teacher have much time for teaching process.

Deductive Method:

This method is just opposite of Inductive method. In this method, facts are being deduced by application of established formula or experimentation. In this method, one proceed from general to particular principles, from unknown to known and from abstract to concrete facts.

Merits of Deductive Method

This method has following merits:

a.         As students of lower classes are being provided with established scientific principles, thus this method can prove to be effective for them.

b.        This method is quite time saving as students are not required to analyses the universal principles.

c.         Teacher's duty or burden gets lessen to some extent by making use of this method as a result of which teachers find themselves in a comfortable and secured position.

d.        Through this method, a teacher can cover the lengthy syllabi of class in shortest period of time.

Demerits of Deduction Method

This method suffers from following demerits:

a.       As the approach of this method is UN-conform and non-explanatory, because of which it is considered to be an unscientific method of teaching.

b.       Through this method, it becomes difficult for the teacher to develop scientific attitude among the students.

c.       As in this method, students do not get any opportunity to play active role in learning process, thus, some experts consider it as un psychological in nature.

d.       Rote memory is being encouraged by this method among the students as a result of which they do not become self-independent.

When to Use:

It can be said that on the basis of above discussion that it is not possible make use of these methods in isolation with each other. In reality, both of these methods are incomplete without the other. By combining these methods, education of science can be imparted to students of higher and secondary levels.

B)        The inductive approach – the rule-discovery path

What are the advantages of encouraging learners to work rules out for themselves?

·        Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.

·        The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth which, again, ensures greater memorability.

·        Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients: they are therefore likely to be more attentive and more motivated.

·        It is an approach which favors pattern-recognition and problem-solving abilities which suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like this kind of challenge.

·        If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target language, learners get the opportunity for extra language practice.

·        Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater self-reliance and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy.

The disadvantages of an inductive approach include:

·        The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into believing that rules are the objective of language learning, rather than a means.

·        The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.

·        Students may hypothesis the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application: this is especially a danger where there is no overt testing of their hypotheses, either through practice examples, or by eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.

·        It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson. They need to select and organise the data carefully so as to guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule, while also ensuring the data is intelligible.

·        However carefully organized the data is, many language areas such as aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.

·        An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their personal learning style or their past learning experience (or both), would prefer simply to be told the rule.

Research findings into the relative benefits of deductive and inductive methods have been inconclusive. Short term gains for deductive learning have been found, and there is some evidence to suggest that some kinds of language items are better 'given than 'discovered'. Moreover, when sur­veyed, most learners tend to prefer deductive presentations of grammar. Nevertheless, once exposed to inductive approaches, there is often less resistance as the learners see the benefits of solving language problems themselves. Finally, the autonomy argument is not easily dismissed: the capacity to discern patterns and regularities in naturally occurring input would seem to be an invaluable tool for self-directed learning and one therefore that might usefully be developed in the classroom.

  

Examples:

	Example1: taken from “English in Situations” (O´Neill, OUP 1970 Generative situation: The teacher sets up a situation in order to “generate” several example sentences of a structure.
	Example 2: The principles of the guided discovery approach were originally intended for self-instruction as part of the kind of programmes which were used in language laboratories. They soon adopted for classroom use, and course books promoting an inductive approach to language learning are now more or less standard. An example of an inductive presentation of the present ample from New Wave 1 (Longman 19988) is shown on the left.
Teaching differences between past simple and present perfect (Teacher writes the following three sets of sentences on the board :) 1a I’ve seen all of Jim Jarmusch’s films.   B I saw his latest film last month. 2a Since 1990, she’s worked for three different newspapers.   B She worked for the Observer in 1996. 3a Have you ever been to Peru?   B When was you in Peru?	Example 3: Minimal sentence pairs By presenting two sentences that are only different in one or two particulars, the teacher is better able to focus the students’ attention on exactly how the choice of form determines a difference in meaning. The sentences should ·           be lexically simple ·           have fairly self-evident contexts As with all rule-explicit presentations, this approach demands a basic command of grammar terminology on the part of the learners. Hypotheses must be tested. That stage is essential in the presentation. It also shifts the focus back on to the learners.

The minimal pair approach is designed to overcome the lack of economy of the generative situation. By getting straight to the point, the minimal pair’s presentation combines the best features of an explanation-driven approach and a discovery approach. It is also relatively easy to plan and to set up. In terms of efficacy, it relies heavily on the choice of sample sentences. More problematic still is the lack of context, which can sometimes lead students to the wrong conclusions, or, more frustratingly, to no conclusion at all.

A         They’ve been painting the kitchen. B         They’ve painted the kitchen.

There is nothing to help students untangle the difference between these two sentences.

A       What a mess!”           “Yes, they’ve been painting the kitchen.” B       “The flat is looking nice.”           “Yes, they’ve painted the kitchen.”

Whereas, with slightly more context, the difference in meaning starts to take shape:

Example 4: Using concordance data

Concordance, text analysis and concordance software, is for anyone who needs to study texts closely or analyse language in depth. This is the most powerful and flexible software of its kind, with registered users in 52 countries.

With Concordance, you can

·        make indexes and word lists

·        count word frequencies

·        compare different usages of a word

·        analyse keywords

·        find phrases and idioms

·        publish to the web

·        ...and much more

Concordance is being used in

·        Language teaching and learning

·        Data mining and data clean-up

·        Literary and linguistic scholarship

·        Translation and language engineering

·        Corpus linguistics

·        Natural language software development

·        Lexicography

·        Content analysis in many disciplines including accountancy, history, marketing, musicology, politics, geography, and media studies

A concordance derives its power for analysis from the fact that it allows us to see every place in a text where a particular word is used, and so to detect patterns of usage and, again, to marshal evidence for an argument. Since words express ideas, themes and motifs, a concordance is highly useful in detecting patterns of meaning as well. The concordance focuses on word-forms, however -- not on what may be meant but what is actually said. It is an empirical tool of textual research. (You can use Corpus Concordance Sampler free at http://titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk/form.html)

Example: -ing form or infinitive after „remember

Francois de Menil, told me I                                remember                       feeling that Fred was like my

Lower in saturated fats - even so,                        remember                       to limit the amount of these you

Slipped me a two-shilling piece.  I                      remember                        going bright red and handing it to

Strong, strangely warm wind. I                            remember                        having experienced something

Service team. [p] [P] Please                                  remember                        to complete the Direct Debit

That of Tom's girl. Personally, I                           remember                        leaving the track team for the

Expensive heating being wasted.                       Remember                      turn your heating system off

Personally. [p] I find it hard to                           remember                        to take my Pill every day and I'm

Street, London E1 9BS.  [p]                                  Remember                     to state the systems you own and

All the drinks you have this week.                      Remember                     to include all your drinks, not

Sex that isn't available now. I can                       remember                        going to a dance hall and being

Take the casualty to hospital and                      remember                       to take with you any empty tablet

Mark, take colour photos of them.                      Remember                     to include an object, such as a

Travel Points, it is important to                           remember                       to put your card through the swipe

And if you are boarding your dog,                    remember                        to ask your vet about protection

We are hoping someone will                                remember                    seeing her. We are extremely concerned for

With a minimum amount of care. Just       remember        to let All Terrain shoes dry away

The famous are already there - just          remember    to add your family's and friends'

Don't you                                                         remember         asking me to fetch one?

Educational guidance School counselor

·         Keywords; guidance counselor, School counselor, educational counselor, School counselor roles, school counseling program, Professional school counselors help students in: academic development, career development, and personal/social development, Elementary school counseling, Middle school counseling, High school counseling, what  is counseling

A school counselor is a counselor and an educator who works in elementary, middle, and high schools to provide academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social competencies to all K-12 students through a school counseling program. The four main school counseling program interventions used include: developmental school counseling core curriculum classroom lessons and annual academic, career/college readiness, and personal/social planning for every student; and group and individual counsel for some students.

Older, outdated terms for the profession were "guidance counselor" or "educational counselor" but "school counselor" is preferred due to professional school counselors' advocating for every child's academic, career, and personal/social success in every elementary, middle, and high school

School counselor roles, school counseling program framework, professional associations, and ethics

Professional school counselors ideally implement a school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement.

School counselors, in most USA states, usually have a Master's degree in school counseling from a Counselor Education graduate program.

In Canada, they must be licensed teachers with additional school counseling training and focus on academic, career, and personal/social issues.

China requires at least three years of college experience.

In Japan, school counselors were added in the mid-1990s, part-time, primarily focused on behavioral issues.

In Taiwan, they are often teachers with recent legislation requiring school counseling licensure focused on individual and group counseling for academic, career, and personal issues.

In Korea, school counselors are mandated in middle and high schools.

School counselors are employed in elementary, middle, and high schools, and in district supervisory settings and in counselor education faculty positions (usually with an earned Ph.D. in Counselor Education in the USA or related graduate doctorates abroad), and post-secondary settings doing academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social counseling, consultation, and program coordination. Their work includes a focus on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks, and student interests related to those stages.

Professional school counselors meet the needs of student in three basic domains: academic development, career development, and personal/social development with an increased emphasis on college access.

Knowledge, understanding and skill in these domains are developed through classroom instruction, appraisal^, consultation, counseling, coordination, and collaboration. For example, in appraisal, school counselors may use a variety of personality and career assessment methods to help students explore career and college needs and interests.

School counselor interventions include individual and group counseling for some students. For example, if a student's behavior is interfering with his or her achievement, the school counselor may observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other stakeholders to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioral issue(s), and then collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan. They also provide consultation services to family members such as college access, career development, parenting skills, study skills, child and adolescent development, and help with school-home transitions.

School counselor interventions for all students include annual academic/career/college access planning K-12 and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic, career/college, and personal/social topics. The topics of character education, diversity and multiculturalism and school safety are important areas of focus for school counselors. Often school counselors will coordinate outside groups that wish to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama.

School counselors develop, implement, and evaluate school counseling programs that deliver academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to all students in their schools.

For example, the ASCA National Model (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012) ^[56] includes the following four main areas:

·         Foundation - a school counseling program mission statement, a beliefs/vision statement, SMART Goals; ASCA Student Standards & ASCA Code of Ethics;

·         Delivery System - how school counseling core curriculum lessons, planning for every student, and individual and group counseling are delivered in direct and indirect services to students (80% of school counselor time);

·         Management System - calendars; use of data tool; use of time tool; administrator-school counselor agreement; advisory council; small group, school counseling core curriculum, and closing the gap action plans; and

·         Accountability System - school counseling program assessment; small group, school counseling core curriculum, and closing-the-gap results reports; and school counselor performance evaluations based on school counselor competencies.

·         Elementary school counseling

·         Elementary school counselors provide, academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of young children K-6.

·          Transitions from pre-school to elementary school and from elementary school to middle school are an important focus for elementary school counselors. Increased emphasis is placed on accountability for closing achievement and opportunity gaps at the elementary level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results.

·         School counseling programs that deliver specific competencies to all students help to close achievement and opportunity gaps. To facilitate individual and group school counseling interventions, school counselors use developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy theories and techniques.

·         Middle school counseling

·         Middle school counselors provide school counseling curriculum lessons on academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college access planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the needs of older children/early adolescents in grades 7 and 8.

·         Middle School College Access curricula have been developed by The College Board to assist students and their families well before reaching high school. To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy. Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to high school are a key area including career exploration and assessment with seventh and eighth grade students.

·          High school counseling

·         High school counselors provide, academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies with developmental classroom lessons and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of adolescents. Emphasis is on college access counseling at the early high school level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement, opportunity, and attainment gaps ensuring all students have access to school counseling programs and early college access activities. The breadth of demands high school counselors face, from educational attainment (high school graduation and some students' preparation for careers and college) to student social and mental health, has led to ambiguous role definition.

·          Summarizing a 2011 national survey of more than 5,300 middle school and high school counselors, researchers argued: "Despite the aspirations of counselors to effectively help students succeed in school and fulfill their dreams, the mission and roles of counselors in the education system must be more clearly defined; schools must create measures of accountability to track their effectiveness; and policymakers and key stakeholders must integrate counselors into reform efforts to maximize their impact in schools across America"

·         Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to college, other post-secondary educational options, and careers are a key area. The high school counselor helps students and their families prepare for post-secondary education including college and careers (e.g. college, careers) by engaging students and their families in accessing and evaluating accurate information on what the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy calls the 8 essential elements of college and career counseling: (1) College Aspirations, (2) Academic Planning for Career and College Readiness, (3) Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement, (4) College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes, (5) College and Career Assessments, (6) College Affordability Planning, (7) College and Career Admission Processes, and (8) Transition from High School Graduation to College Enrollment.^[76] Some students turn to private college admissions advisors but there is no research evidence that private college admissions advisors have any effectiveness in assisting students attain selective college admissions.

Definition Staff of Counseling and Aims of Staff Counseling

Keywords; Definition Staff of Counseling, Aims of Staff Counseling, Organizational relationships, Guidance Department, Counselors’ Responsibilities, school counseling, Guidance and counseling of staff members

Definition:

Staff counseling is a psychological health care intervention which can take many forms. Its aim is to assist both the employer and employee by intervening with an active problem-solving approach to tackling the problems at hand.

Employee counseling can do much to prevent the negative effects of stress at an individual level and ultimately at an organizational level.

Aims of Staff Counseling:

The specific aims of staff counseling are to:

·         Explore and find the key sources of difficulty.

·         Review the individual’s current strategies and styles of coping.

·         Implement methods of dealing with the perceived problem, thereby alleviating the issue. Often, this step may involve also improving interpersonal relations at work and/or improving personal performance.

·         Evaluate the effectiveness of the chosen strategies.

Staff Assignments

While the program must be defined and organized to meet the identified needs of students and the established goals of the program, the assignments of the program staff also must be appropriately defined and organized. Although school counselors have the primary responsibility for delivery of the Texas Comprehensive, Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program, full program implementation calls for employing a wide range of categories of staff and distinguishing between their roles. Organizing the staffing patterns and defining their organizational relationships are also required.

Staff categories: The personnel resources available to a campus or district guidance program vary with the size of the district and the school / district’s commitment to the guidance program. Professional, paraprofessional, and volunteers from the school guidance department, the school staff, and the district and community are used.

School Staff:

•                   Administrators’ responsibilities may relate to the guidance program: provision of responsive services to students who are having behavior or other problems; referral of students for counseling; provision of system support to the program and the counseling staff; administration of functions which link to guidance activities (e.g., scheduling, testing program coordination).

•                   Teachers may perform such guidance functions as the teaching guidance curriculum, advising in the individual planning system, and referring students for counseling.

District staff:

•                   Guidance department administrators and supervisors lead and assist in developmental guidance and counseling program planning, design, implementation, and evaluation. They provide staff development activities through supervision, evaluation, and in-service training of campus guidance staff. They are responsible for materials and resources.

•                   Psychological services personnel coordinate and collaborate with counselors to ensure continuity of services for students with special, psychological needs.

•                   Social Workers and other related mental health specialists augment the guidance program staff. In general, their services are extensions of Responsive Services.

Competence. The responsibilities that various people carry out in comprehensive, developmental guidance and counseling program implementation must be specifically defined. Responsibilities should be appropriate to the individuals’ background, training, and competence; for example, guidance department heads should be trained in supervision of school counselors.

Personnel without school counselor certification should be trained to carry out their responsibilities in the guidance and counseling program, e.g., teachers trained to be advisors, community representatives trained to be school speakers, and parent volunteers trained in tasks and parameters of their jobs. They should also be schooled regarding the needs of students.

Personnel without school counselor certification cannot legally be used in place of certified professional school counselors, but rather to augment the program. All personnel assisting in the delivery of the guidance program should adhere to the ethical and legal standards of the counseling profession. Key standards are those regarding students’ and parents’ rights and confidentiality.

Staffing patterns. Staff load and/or special program assignments for individual staff members need to be:

•                   supported by a rationale appropriate to student and community needs, and to campus guidance program goals and objectives;

•                   appropriate to each counselor’s or staff member’s program responsibilities;

•                   Appropriate to each counselor’s or staff member’s training, background, and area of specialization.

Organizational relationships. The guidance department has primary responsibility to implement the Texas Comprehensive, Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program the local board of education adopts as policy. Personnel without school counselor certification who are active in the program should be supervised by the professional school counselors.

Within the professional school counseling staff, organizational relationships should be clearly defined. Those counselors with special responsibilities should be clearly identified. The guidance department head should be delegated the authority needed to supervise the counseling and guidance department staff.

Mechanisms which facilitate communications between the various members of the guidance program staff need to be employed; for example, regular staff meetings should be held.

Guidance Department:

•                   Counselors may be assigned to conduct their responsibilities comprehensively (i.e., to fulfill all responsibilities for the counselees in their group assignments). Specialist counselors may be assigned to carry out special program assignments or to serve special student groups. Special program assignments include guidance department leadership, crisis team, and building test coordination. Special group assignments include students in compensatory education, special education, career and technology education, and substance abuse/prevention programs.

•                   Paraprofessional support personnel are needed to fully implement the Texas Comprehensive, Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program and include secretaries, registrars, career center technicians, and scheduling clerks.  

Counselors’ Responsibilities

When a fully certified school counselor is employed, the administration, faculty, parents, and community should expect the counselor to carry out eight basic responsibilities competently and in a professional and accountable manner. The eight responsibilities are:

•                   Program Management

•                   Guidance

•                   Counseling

•                   Consultation

•                   Coordination

•                   Student Assessment

•                   Professional Behavior

•                   Professional Standards