AN INQURIY IN TO THE METHODS OF TEACHING BIOLOGY AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS LEVEL

1.1Introductions

The word science has been originated from a Latin word “scientia” which implies to know something from such perspective, it can be said that any systematic effort perform to know something about anything is known as science. To unveil the mysteries of nature and various other concepts and processes, the technique of experiment and reasoning’s are being used by human being.

In ancient times, area of science was not developed because of which people considered that various changes taking place innature were as a result of some divine power. If any miss-happening took place, people used to say that it was a result of misdoing and they indulged   in various rituals by which they could make their God or Goddess happy. But with the spread of education, people began to ask questions related to various happening taking place around them.People began to analyze all the facts on the basis of their reasons or loss which used togovern such changes. For instance Newton’s law of gravitation came into existence when he was once sitting under a tree and suddenly an apple dropped on his head. He did not get satisfied by the belief that as there is no support for apple, which led it to its fall. He began to explore this fact and after very hard and sustain effort, he design the law of gravitation.

Area of science is basically concern with the processes of exploration of physical world through three basic areas namely physics, chemistry, biology. All of these three branches of science are important for human beings as without such knowledge they are not able to control physical and biological world in which they exist. Today’s world is scientific worldwhere it is not possible to make any kind of progress in life without any kind of developments of various equipment’s and apparatus , by which life has become very easy in comparison to earlier times. So experts consider science as a body of knowledge.Science is a method of inquiry, and the most important outcomes of science is acquisition of scientific attitude. According to holy Quran knowledge is of two types,the first is that which acquire through observation and the other type of knowledge is metaphysical. The study of science provides training in attacking the problem according to certain definite and distinct procedure. This specific procedure is known as scientific method. The teacher of science develops the scientific attitude in students .This attitude includes critical observation, open mindedness, suspended judgment.

There are different methods of teaching biology they are lecture method, project method, laboratory method, discussion method, brain stroming, workshop which was used in teaching biology.

1.2 Background and justification

Today’s world is the world of science. A period of change and progress and it is getting newer every movement.The present century rightly called as modern that is science of technological age. The search of truth becomes the prosecution of science.

This research will focus on the method of teaching of science teacher because he is the person who provides younger people with the kind of education which will not only provide an understanding of today’s problems but to keep recognize and interpret signals for future. This research will find outnew method and techniques for teaching science because modern world needs an education in the science that is up to date and relevant to contemporary life. This research will also helpful for teachers to clear concept about science fairs, science exhibition, and the use of Audio-visual aids for students.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The main objectives of the study are;

1.       To explore the methods of teaching biology followed by teachers in selected schools.

2. To explore laboratory facilities for practical work in selected schools.

3.      To identify the type of A.V aids are used for biology teaching.

4.      Suggest measure’s for improvement in teaching of biology.

 

1.4 Significance of the study

 This study is expected contributed towards the promotion of science education at secondary level in the following manners.

Ø To offer alternative to the teachers and to improve their teaching methods.

Ø To change the traditional class in to activity oriented place.

Ø To enable the teachers to develop the habit of identification and utilization of the local resources.

Ø To enable the students to acquire and practice skills for learning of science.

Ø To make policy makers, planners, administrators and science teachers to realize that non availability of sophisticated equipment in biology laboratory is a problem, but one that can be solved to some extent.

1.6 Research questions

To complete this study, certain questions needed to be answered by teachers

1.      What are the best methods to use for the teaching of biology?

2.      What types of laboratory facilities are available for practical work?

3.      What type of A.V aids could be used in the teaching of biology?

 

2. Research design

Quantitative research design will be used. A reliableQuestionnaire will be used for data collection in schools.

2. 1 Nature of the study

The nature of the study is descriptive type.

2.2 Population

All the Girls and their teachers of district Peshawar are the population of this study.

2.3 Sampling

Four selected schools will be randomly selected.The sample size will be 25 students and 10 teachers from each school.

2.4 Tools of data collection

Two Questionnaireswill be used for data collection one for teachers and one for students.

2.5 Limitation of the study

The data will be collected only from female students and teachers, male students and teacher will not be the part of this study because in KPK culture, it is difficult for girls to go into boys’ schools.

2.6Delimitation of the study

This study is delimited to district Peshawar.

3.1 Ethical consideration

The researcher will keep in mind all the ethical consideration and will try not to harm any one’s feelings and emotions.

3.2 Research methods/time frame

Develop research proposal and obtain approval    60 days

 Develop and improve instrument                         10 days

Download research                                                10 days

Administer instrument and data collection            70 days

Data analysis                                                          30 days

Research report writing                                         60 Days

REFERENCES

 

Crow,L.D.& Ritchie,H.E.(1961).Education in the secondary school  (1^st Ed). New Dehli; American Bank Company.

 

Gay,L.R. (1990). Educational Research competencies for Analysis and Application.(3^rd Ed). New York; Macmillan Publication Company.

 

Gupta, V.K. (1995). Teaching  and learning of science and Technology New Delhi; Vika publishing House.

 

 

Institute of Education & Research

 

Introduction:

The Institute of Education & Research (IER) is one of the academic units of the University of Peshawar. Its history goes back to 1920’s when Dr. M. Malik floated the idea and felt the need and importance of teacher training, which lead to initiation of its modest start as part of Islamia College offering B.T. (Bachelor of Teaching) course. It was later shifted to Agriculture Training Institute (ATI) and then to the building housing Senate Hall in University of Peshawar. In the early days of the University of Peshawar in 1950 it emerged as Education Department in the existing building in University of Peshawar. Its status was then elevated in 14^th October 1963 as College of Education. It was in 1980 when the college was elevated to the level of institute and named as Institute of Education & Research (IER) and placed in the Faculty of Education comprising of eight departments. However, after restructuring of faculties of University of Peshawar it has been placed under the Faculty of Social Sciences.

 The then faculty of education had eight departments, which included the following:

1)      Department of Educational Psychology

2)      Department of Guidance and Counselling

3)      Department of Curriculum and instruction

4)      Department of Educational Planning and Management

5)      Department of Educational Testing and Research

6)      Department of Pre-service and in-service Training

7)      Department of History

8)      Department of Philosophy and Sociology

 

The I.E.R enjoys a unique position in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). It imparts training to the prospective and in-service teachers of secondary and higher secondary schools. The Institute offers various professional courses that include B.Ed. (Bachelors of Education, one year), M.Ed. (Masters of Education, one year), M.Phil and Ph.D. programmes in the discipline of Education. Recently, B.Ed. elementary (Hons-4 year) programme has been launched, which will soon be followed by B.Ed. secondary (Hons-4 year) programme. IER is also having a Lab School of its own, where the potentials and capabilities of the prospective teacher is assessed in teaching practicum.

 

Housed in a separate building, it has all the necessary facilities of a teacher training institution. It has a spacious and well-stocked library, science and computer laboratories, seminar rooms, and lecture halls. Furthermore, all necessary efforts are made to ensure that the trainees’ stay is comfortable and productive.

 

Vision:

IER is committed to promote quality education and research culture by strengthening human and physical resources and developing linkages with national and international peer institutions with focus on central Asian States.

 Mission:

Strategically located at the gateway to central Asia and keeping in view the norms of the society and the demands of 21^st century, IER is serving the nation by preparing quality teachers, educational researchers and leaders, equipped with professional skills.

 

Values Statement:

The Institute of Education & Research is committed to incorporate the values of honesty, professionalism, respect, democracy and collaboration in achieving its mission.

 

Objectives:

1. Advancing the cause of education, with main stress on teacher education.
2. Development of modern teaching skills and techniques.
3. Development of strategies to replace the conventional system of education based on rote learning and cramming with one that leads to creativity and originality of ideas and thoughts.
4. Development of a culture of research and investigation in an educational setting.
5. Producing skilled and well equipped teachers.

 

Outcomes:

To cater the need of schools in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

 Role of WWF to Create awareness about Environmental Issues through Environmental Education in N.W.F.P

Background and justification:

Environmental education and awareness is to bring a positive change in masses attitude towards environment. Environmental education and awareness is as old as environmental degradation, but in developing countries like Pakistan people always seeks to improve their livelihood, without concerning about their environment

Forest, which is considered as the most momentous natural resource through out the world, Pakistan has unfortunately only 4.8% of the total area covered with forests, which is far less than the prescribed 20 to 25% considered necessary for the balanced economic development and environmental stability of the country. With a rapid growth in population and poverty, most of the people relay on forests for their livelihood, but due to unawareness and lack of environmental education, they are contributing more to the loss of forests cover rather than their income (Hussain, 2005).

 During 60’s worsening global environmental conditions causes significant public concerns that forced different government and non government organizations to react against environment degradations. These concerns led to different environmental awareness and educational programs.

 Like other part of the world this problem is also identified in Pakistan and initially it was addressed by private organizations and they play vital role in environmental education and awareness, and has identified certain good and replicable lessons, like identifying schools as the most appropriate target for any environmental education and awareness program. Students need to be equipped with knowledge and skills to participate significantly in the conservation and development process. Though different organizations are contributing to this sector, but very little attention has been paid to environmental education and awareness on policy level on the part of government.

 Considering the importance of environmental education, there is urge need to document the success stories and lesson learned of different organizations which, could be replicate else where in the country, identify gaps in their work for further improvement and sensitized police makers to include environmental education as a part of curricula in different education institutions. In order to do it all, this research study is proposed.

Purpose:

The Purpose of this study is to analyze the role of WWF in imparting environmental education in NWFP through a qualitative study of markhore Conservation and Conservation of forests link to livelihood opportunities through environmental education

 Significance of the study:

 This study will document the success stories and help to replicate lesson learned in other like wise areas and also will contribute to the insertion of environmental education and awareness in the curricula of teacher training institute

 Objectives:

1. Analyze the role of WWF in environmental education and awareness in NWFP
2. explore various methods of imparting environmental education  and creating awareness
3. Identify gaps and suggest measures for further improvement and Contribute to the insertion of environmental education and awareness in the curricula of different educational  institutes

Research Questions:

1.            Identify the methods and tools of environmental education and awareness through which WWF is creating awareness?

2.            Explore the effect on the target community?

Research design:

Qualitative method will be used to understand the phenomenon under study by using semi structure interview with school children and informal discussion with community members.

 Methods of data collection:

Semi structure interview with students from selected schools at primary and high schools, also informal discussion with the community members and document analysis

 Samples:

Primary schools student, currently the part of this study and internship students of WWF-NWFP during last 10 years.

 Limitations:

 Due to short training courses to school students, it will be difficult to identify them now after a long gap. Due to this limitation the researcher will dependant on current students and teachers of the school as well as the document available now which was documented at that time (for old students).

 Ethical:

The researcher will approach all those parents and explain them the purpose of this study and request them for the written permission to interview their son’s or daughters for this purpose. The researcher will try not to harm any one feeling or status by this study. This researcher will follow the ethical guidelines (BERA, other)

 Research Methods/Timeframe:

 Develop Research Proposal and obtain approval                                     90 days

Develop and test questions                                                                        40 Days

Develop and test tool                                                                                  30 days

Obtain participants                                                                                      30 days

Administer instrument(s)                                                                             30 days

Data collection and analysis                                                                       120 days

Research Report                                                                                         100 days

 

Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory

 

Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory

Introduction;

                   To understand the Hull’s theory we must trace back the historical development of philosophical implications and chief assumptions of the behaviorist theories, historically we find two most prominent families of learning theories.

One is Stimulus-Response association, and other is Gestalt field theories.

Hull’s theory basically belongs to the first family of learning theories, i-e Stimulus-response association. In the beginning of 20^th century a new form of association became popular which was non-mentalist, or physiological association. The chief exponents were John B. Watson and Edward L. Thorndike.

            Watson psychology was known as behaviorism while Thorndike psychology was called connectionism, although the psychological systems of Thorndike and Watson no longer advocated in their original form, but many contemporary psychologists have orientations sufficiently similar to theirs, are called Neo Behaviorist. Some leading contemporary behaviorists are E.R Guthrie, C.L Hull, B.F Skinner and K.W Spence.

 

Emergence of S.R Association;

                        The early associationists were interested in mental phenomena (John Calvin, J. Edwards).  In contrast modern associationism tends to be rooted in a different kind of interest i-e the behavior of bodies. During the first half of nineteenth century experimental psychology got it’s started with in experimental physiology. For instance physiologist Bell Muller made experiments on working of nervous system in seeing and hearing, Wilhelm Wundt was trained in medicine. He turned to medical, to physiology and from physiology to psychology. As interest in bodily functioning become apparent among many psychologists late in 19^th century. This group of physiological psychologist argued that psychology could become a true science only if it switched its focus to bodily process. Thus they begin to focus their attention on objects or events which could be observed with the five senses be studied in the same manner by any number of trained investigators and led to uniform conclusion.

To a growing number of psychologist the only logical alternative to the method of introspection was to focus on observable form of behavior such behavior include not only bodily movement as seen by observer, watching a subject but also internal physical processes related to overt bodily behavior.

            Gradually a large number of psychologists had come to feel that psychology in time could be come as scientific as physics. A few of person who contributed to the development of physiological psychology was Marshal Hall (1790­­­––1857), worked on neural basis of reflex behavior, Pierre Flourens (1794––1867) demonstrated that different parts of the nervous system have different functions and identified the function of each part. Some of notable animal learning experiments of the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries were conducted by Russian psychologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849––1936). Pavlov put food before a hungry dog and sounded a bell, he found that if this procedure repeated for several times the sound alone would cause the dog to salivate.

            Thorndike animal experiments, making use of chickens, dogs, and cats were possibly more comprehensive than Pavlov’s.  Thorndike’s famous laws of learning were derived mainly from his interpretation of how cats behave when placed in a cage from which they do not know how to escape until they learn.

Watson much more strongly, than Thorndike, felt the need to base psychology exclusively on the concept of physics and chemistry.

            Watson drew heavily upon Pavlov’s work and became convinced that learning was as Pavlov described it namely, a process of building condition reflexes through substitution of one stimulus for another. Watson and other “pure behaviorists” rejected certain Thorndike’s ideas like “mental units”, “satisfaction” and “annoyance” which seemed to be mentalistic concepts and should be disregarded in a truly scientific psychology. Thus Watson confined his study to only those aspects of animal life which were sufficiently overt to make possible highly objective observation and measurement of them.

 

The Emergence of Neo-Behaviorists;

          It was observed that the precise nature of neural mechanisms was largely irrelevant to an understanding of learning. A strong interest in neural physiology and the physical mechanics of S––R linkages was developed and the behavior of the organism became the focus of the analyses, instead of neural mechanism behind it.

            Studies were carried out to show how S’s and R’s are linked rather than the precise operation of the physiological mechanism which lies between the S’s and R’s. this gave birth to the term Neo-Behaviorists.

 

Classification of Neo-Behaviorists

          The neo-behaviorists may be divided in to three groups,

1.      Conditioning independent of reinforcement

2.      Conditioning governed by principles of reinforcement

3.      The two factor theory.

C.L Hull belong the second group how focus on conditioning governed by principles of reinforcement and is known as “Deductive Behaviorism or Reinforcement theory”.

 

About hull Clark Hull grew up handicapped and contracted polio at the age of 24, yet he became one of the great contributors to psychology. His family was not well off so his education had to be stopped at times. Clark earned extra money through teaching. Originally Clark aspired to be a great engineer, but that was before he fell in love with the field of Psychology. By the age of 29 he graduated from Michigan University. When Clark was 34 when he received his Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Wisconsin in 1918. Soon after graduation he became a member of the faculty at the University of Wisconsin, where he served for 10 years. Although one of his first experiments was an analytical study of the effects of tobacco on behavioral efficiency, his life long emphasis was on the development of objective methods for psychological studies designed to determine the inderlying principles of behavior.

Hull devoted the next 10 years to the study of hypnosis and suggestibility, and in 1933 he published Hypnosis and Suggestibility, while employed as a research professor at Yale University. This is where he developed his major contribution, an elaborate theory of behavior based on Pavlov's laws of conditioning. Pavlov provoked Hull to become greatly interested in the problem of conditioned reflexes and learning. In 1943 Hull published, Principles of Behavior, which presented a number of constructs in a detailed Theory of Behavior. He soon he became the most cited psychologist.

His theory Hull believed that human behavior is a result of the constant interaction between the organism and its environment. The environment provides the stimuli and the organism responds, all of which is observable. Yet there is a component that is not observable, the change or adaptation that the organism needs to make in order to survive within it's environment. Hull explains, "when survival is in jeopardy, the organism is in a state of need (when the biological requirements for survival are not being met) so the organism behaves in a fashion to reduce that need" ( Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p 238). Simply, the organism behaves in such a way that reinforces the optimal biological conditions that are required for survival.

Hull was an objective behaviorist. He never considered the conscious, or any mentalistic notion. He tried to reduce every concept to physical terms. He viewed human behavior as mechanical, automatic and cyclical, which could be reduced to the terms of physics. Obviously, he thought in terms of mathematics, and felt that behavior should be expressed according to these terms. "Psychologist must not only develop a thorough understanding of mathematics, they must think in mathematics" (Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p 239). In Hull's time three specific methods were commonly used by researchers; observation, systematic controlled observation, and experimental testing of the hypothesis. Hull believed that an additional method was needed, - The Hypothetico Deductive method. This involves deriving postulates from which experimentally testable conclusions could be deduced. These conclusions would then be experimentally tested.

Hull viewed the drive as a stimulus, arising from a tissue need, which in turn stimulates behavior. The strength of the drive is determined upon the length of the deprivation, or the intensity / strength of the resulting behavior. He believed the drive to be non-specific, which means that the drive does not direct behavior rather it functions to energize it. In addition this drive reduction is the reinforcement. Hull recognized that organisms were motivated by other forces, secondary reinforcements. " This means that previously neutral stimuli may assume drive characteristics because they are capable of eliciting responses that are similar to those aroused by the original need state or primary drive" (Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p 240). So learning must be taking place within the organism.

Hull's learning theory focuses mainly on the principle of reinforcement; when a S-R relationship is followed by a reduction of the need, the probability increases that in future similar situations the same stimulus will create the same prior response. Reinforcement can be defined in terms of reduction of a primary need. Just as Hull believed that there were secondary drives, he also felt that there were secondary reinforcements - " If the intensity of the stimulus is reduced as the result of a secondary or learned drive, it will act as a secondary reinforcement" ( Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p 241). The way to strengthen the S-R response is to increase the number of reinforcements, habit strength.

Clark Hull's Mathematico Deductive Theory of Behavior relied on the belief that the link between the S-R relationship could be anything that might effect how an organism responds; learning, fatigue, disease, injury, motivation, etc. He labeled this relationship as "E", a reaction potential, or as sEr. Clark goal was to make a science out of all of these intervening factors. He classified his formula

sEr = (sHr x D x K x V) - (sIr + Ir) +/- sOr

as the Global Theory of Behavior. Habit strength, sHr, is determined by the number of reinforces. Drive strength, D, is measured by the hours of deprivation of a need. K, is the incentive value of a stimulus, and V is a measure of the connectiveness. Inhibitory strength, sIr, is the number of non reinforces. Reactive inhibition, Ir, is when the organism has to work hard for a reward and becomes fatigued. The last variable in his formula is sOr, which accounts for random error. Hull believed that this formula could account for all behavior, and that it would generate more accurate empirical data, which would eliminate all ineffective introspective methods within the laboratory (Thomson, 1968).

Although Hull was a great contributor to psychology, his theory was criticized for the lack of generalizability due to the way he defined his variables in such precise quantitative terms. "Thus, Hull's adherence to a mathematical and formal system of theory building is open to both praise and criticism" (Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p 242).

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School counselor

 School counselor

A school counselor is a counselor and an educator who works in elementary, middle, and high schools to provide academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social competencies to all K-12 students through a school counseling program. The four main school counseling program interventions used include: developmental school counseling core curriculum classroom lessons and annual academic, career/college readiness, and personal/social planning for every student; and group and individual counsel for some students.

Older, outdated terms for the profession were "guidance counselor" or "educational counselor" but "school counselor" is preferred due to professional school counselors' advocating for every child's academic, career, and personal/social success in every elementary, middle, and high school

School counselor roles, school counseling program framework, professional associations, and ethics

Professional school counselors ideally implement a school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement.

School counselors, in most USA states, usually have a Master's degree in school counseling from a Counselor Education graduate program.

In Canada, they must be licensed teachers with additional school counseling training and focus on academic, career, and personal/social issues.

China requires at least three years of college experience.

In Japan, school counselors were added in the mid-1990s, part-time, primarily focused on behavioral issues.

In Taiwan, they are often teachers with recent legislation requiring school counseling licensure focused on individual and group counseling for academic, career, and personal issues.

In Korea, school counselors are mandated in middle and high schools.

School counselors are employed in elementary, middle, and high schools, and in district supervisory settings and in counselor education faculty positions (usually with an earned Ph.D. in Counselor Education in the USA or related graduate doctorates abroad), and post-secondary settings doing academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social counseling, consultation, and program coordination. Their work includes a focus on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks, and student interests related to those stages.

 

Professional school counselors meet the needs of student in three basic domains: academic development, career development, and personal/social development with an increased emphasis on college access.

Knowledge, understanding and skill in these domains are developed through classroom instruction, appraisal , consultation, counseling, coordination, and collaboration. For example, in appraisal, school counselors may use a variety of personality and career assessment methods to help students explore career and college needs and interests.

 School counselor interventions include individual and group counseling for some students. For example, if a student's behavior is interfering with his or her achievement, the school counselor may observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other stakeholders to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioral issue(s), and then collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan. They also provide consultation services to family members such as college access, career development, parenting skills, study skills, child and adolescent development, and help with school-home transitions.

 School counselor interventions for all students include annual academic/career/college access planning K-12 and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic, career/college, and personal/social topics. The topics of character education, diversity and multiculturalism and school safety are important areas of focus for school counselors. Often school counselors will coordinate outside groups that wish to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama.

 School counselors develop, implement, and evaluate school counseling programs that deliver academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to all students in their schools.

for example, the ASCA National Model (Hatch & Bowers, 2003, 2005; ASCA, 2012)^[56] includes the following four main areas:

·         Foundation - a school counseling program mission statement, a beliefs/vision statement, SMART Goals; ASCA Student Standards & ASCA Code of Ethics;

·         Delivery System - how school counseling core curriculum lessons, planning for every student, and individual and group counseling are delivered in direct and indirect services to students (80% of school counselor time);

·         Management System - calendars; use of data tool; use of time tool; administrator-school counselor agreement; advisory council; small group, school counseling core curriculum, and closing the gap action plans; and

·         Accountability System - school counseling program assessment; small group, school counseling core curriculum, and closing-the-gap results reports; and school counselor performance evaluations based on school counselor competencies.

 

·         Elementary school counseling

·         Elementary school counselors provide, academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of young children K-6.

·          Transitions from pre-school to elementary school and from elementary school to middle school are an important focus for elementary school counselors. Increased emphasis is placed on accountability for closing achievement and opportunity gaps at the elementary level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results.

·         School counseling programs that deliver specific competencies to all students help to close achievement and opportunity gaps. To facilitate individual and group school counseling interventions, school counselors use developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy theories and techniques.

 

·         Middle school counseling

·         Middle school counselors provide school counseling curriculum lessons on academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college access planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the needs of older children/early adolescents in grades 7 and 8.

·         Middle School College Access curricula have been developed by The College Board to assist students and their families well before reaching high school. To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered listening and influencing skills, sytemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy. Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to high school are a key area including career exploration and assessment with seventh and eighth grade students.

 

·          High school counseling

·         High school counselors provide, academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies with developmental classroom lessons and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of adolescents. Emphasis is on college access counseling at the early high school level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement, opportunity, and attainment gaps ensuring all students have access to school counseling programs and early college access activities. The breadth of demands high school counselors face, from educational attainment (high school graduation and some students' preparation for careers and college) to student social and mental health, has led to ambiguous role definition.

·          Summarizing a 2011 national survey of more than 5,300 middle school and high school counselors, researchers argued: "Despite the aspirations of counselors to effectively help students succeed in school and fulfill their dreams, the mission and roles of counselors in the education system must be more clearly defined; schools must create measures of accountability to track their effectiveness; and policymakers and key stakeholders must integrate counselors into reform efforts to maximize their impact in schools across America"

·         Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to college, other post-secondary educational options, and careers are a key area. The high school counselor helps students and their families prepare for post-secondary education including college and careers (e.g. college, careers) by engaging students and their families in accessing and evaluating accurate information on what the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy calls the 8 essential elements of college and career counseling: (1) College Aspirations, (2) Academic Planning for Career and College Readiness, (3) Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement, (4) College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes, (5) College and Career Assessments, (6) College Affordability Planning, (7) College and Career Admission Processes, and (8) Transition from High School Graduation to College Enrollment.^[76] Some students turn to private college admissions advisors but there is no research evidence that private college admissions advisors have any effectiveness in assisting students attain selective college admissions.