Relationship Between Education & Psychology||Relationship between Education & Psychology

Relationship Between Education & Psychology||Relationship between Education & Psychology 

Submitted by:

Sultan Muhammad Khan

Introduction

Meaning and Historical background of Psychology:

The word ‘Psychology’ is derived from Greek word Psycho and logos. Psycho’ means ‘Soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘Science’, The Science of Soul.

Psychology acquired separate status very recently. Formerly it was studied as a sub-branch of philosophy. Later on philosophers give another definition of psychology; the ‘science of mind’. All these definitions were given by philosophers-psychologists prior to the beginning of experimental psychology.

Psychology as ‘Science of Behavior’

Today psychology is scientific methods of collecting data about individuals and groups to analyze and predict their behavior. 

Roots of Psychology

The roots of Psychology could be traced back in philosophy and science. When physiologists of the late nineteenth century began to use scientific methods to study mind, later on Psychology became an independent scientific discipline. 

Scientific Roots of Psychology

By nineteenth century, psychologists were progressing than philosophers in answering questions about the nature of psychological processes. 

Education and psychology

Education is a process which enables the individual to distinguish between true and false, good and bad, right and wrong                          (Imam Ghazali)

Stephen, “Educational Psychology is the systematic study of the educational growth and development of a child". 

Some psychologists called psychology as a branch of education, as James Mill implied in the early nineteenth century. However, some other psychologist Disagree with them, who were familiar with the history of psychology and continuing, links between psychology and education. They defend it with the comparison of historical and contemporary relationship between education and psychology.

One question, which is frequently asked that a field like psychology, which is divided within self, could be used and applied constructively to a practical field like education. It is the fact that we are dealing with two different fields; one is concerned with human ends and the means of promoting them, the other with understanding and knowledge of human experience and actions. Today it is acknowledged widely that psychology has influenced education in the past.

Why We Study Psychology In Education

It is very essential for a teacher to teach his students according to their mental abilities. Educational psychology helps the teacher in doing so. It enables the teacher to teach where and how? It helps us in the following ways.

PART 2 ARTICLE LINK......CLICK BELOW....

theory of learning||operant conditioning||Reinforcer and Reinforcement||two types of conditioning

Topic: Theory of Learning, “Operant Conditioning''

Learning: What goes in the process of learning? How do we learn? 

There are various theories which throw light on the phenomenon of learning. Each theory with its systematic body of knowledge explains the nature and process of learning. These theories represent broad principles and techniques of learning. These theories also put forth various methods of learning and suggest the teacher and learner to take proper steps for the effective learning.

Modern learning theories maybe classified into two broad types, namely:

A) Stimulus response- associationist type of learning theory.

B) Gestalt field or field cognitive type of learning theory.

A) S-R associationst type of theory interprets learning in terms of the change in behavior of the learner brought about by association of the response to a series of stimuli. The chief exponents of this type of theories are:

I. Edward L. Thorndike: his idea and system is called “connectionism”, “Trial and Error” or “S-R learning theories.

II. John B. Watson and Evan Petrovich Pavlov: their idea and system is known as classical condition.

III. Burrhus Frederic Skinner is called “Operant conditioning”

None of these theories are said to be complete in all aspects for explaining the phenomenon of learning. Each one of them gives partial description. For example one theory is good in explaining the learning process in one situation while the others hold equally good in the other different situations

Trial and Error or S-R Learning theory 

Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door for exit which could be opened by correctly manipulating a latch. A fish was placed outside the box. The smell of the fish worked as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. Consequently the cat made every possible effort to come out. It tries to squeeze through every opening, it claws and bites at the bars or wires. In this way, it made a number of random movements. In one of the random movement, by chance the latch was manipulated. The cat comes out and got its reward response. Now it was able to open the door without any error or learnt the way of opening the door. This experiment sums up the following stages in the process of learning.

Drive:  hunger intensified with the sight and smell of the food i.e. smell of a fish.

Goal: To get the food by getting out of the box.

Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.  

Random movements: the cat persistently tried to get out of the box.

Chance success: As a result of these striving and random movements, the cat, by chance, succeeded in opening the latch

Selection: (of proper movement) gradually the cat recognized the correct opening way by manipulating the latch out of its random movements

Fixation: At last the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing only right response. Now it was able to open the door without any error

Thorndike named the learning of his experiment as “Trial and Error” He maintained that the learning is nothing but the stamping in of the correct responses and stamping out of the incorrect responses  through trial and error. In trying for the correct solution the cat made so many vain attempts. It committed errors and errors before getting success. On subsequent trial, it tried to avoid the erroneous ways and repeat the correct ways of manipulating the latch. Thorndike called it “learning by selecting and connecting” as it provides an opportunity for the selection of the proper responses and connect or associate them with appropriate stimuli. In this reference Thorndike has written “Learning is connecting. The mind is man’s connection system”

Evan Patrovich Pavlov’s “Classical conditioning” learning theory

Pavlov gave birth to a new theory of learning known as conditioned response theory or simply as learning by conditioning.

Experiment:  In one of the experiments, Pavlov kept a dog hungry for the night and then tied him on to the experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The dog was made comfortable and distractions were excluded as far as it was possible to do so. The observer kept himself hidden from the view of the dog but able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangements were made to give food to the dog through automatic devices. Every time when food was presented before the dog, he also arranged for the ringing of a bell. When the food presented before the dog and the bell was rung, there was automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog. The activity of presenting the food accompanied with a ringing of the bell was repeated several times and the amount of saliva secreted was measured.

 After several trials, the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. In this case also the amount of saliva secreted was recorded and measured. It was found that even in the absence of food (the natural stimulus), the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response)

It considers the learning as a habit formation and is based on the principle of association and substitution. It is simply a stimulus-response type of learning where in place of a natural stimulus like food and water etc, the artificial stimulus like sound of the bell, can evoke a natural response. When both the artificial or neutral stimulus (ringing of the bell) and natural stimulus (food) are brought together, several times, the dog becomes habituated or conditioned to respond to this situation. There becomes perfect association between the types of stimuli presented together. As a result, after some times natural stimulus can be substituted or replaced by an artificial stimulus and this artificial stimulus is able to evoke the natural response.

Diagrammatic Presentation of the Experiment

Natural Stimulus Natural response

(Presentation of food) (Salivation)

S1 R2

S2 R2

Artificial Stimulus General Alertness

(Ringing bell)

Experiment No 2. In one of the experiment done by Watson, the subject was the human baby of eleven months. The baby was given a rabbit to play. The baby liked it very much and was pleased to touch its fur. He watched carefully the pleasant responses of the baby. After some times in the course of the experiment, a loud noise was produced to frighten the baby. As soon as the baby touched the rabbit the baby was frightened. Each time when he wanted to touch the rabbit, the loud noise was produced and he gave fear response.

From these experiments, Watson and Pavlov concluded that all type of learning can be explained through the process of conditioning. What is this process?

It is a learning process by means of which artificial stimulus is able behave like a natural stimulus when both natural and artificial stimulus are presented together. In this type of learning, association plays a great role since the individual responds to an artificial stimulus because he associates it with the natural stimulus

Operant conditioning 

Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904-1990) was born in Susquehanna Penensyvanian railroad town closed to the New York State border.

At school and College, skinner was interested in literature and biology and considered becoming a poet and novelist. However he becomes interested in psychology after reading books by Pavlov and Watson. He enrolled at the psychology department at Harvard University gaining a Ph.D degree in psychology in 1931. In1948 he joined psychology department in Harvard University there he remained professionally active until his death in 1990.

During World War II Skinner participated in a government research project, the result of which were not made public until 1959. He had been conditioning pigeons to pilot missiles and torpedoes. The pigeons were so highly trained that they could guide a missile right down into the smokestack of navel destroyer

Skinner’s Experiments regarding ‘ operant conditioning’

B.F Skinner conducted a series of experiment with animals. For conducting the experiments with rats, he designed a special apparatus known as Skinner’s Box. It was a much modified form of the puzzle box used by Thorndike for his experiments with cats. The darken sound proof box mainly consists of a grid floor, a system of light or sound produced at the time of delivering a pallet of food in the food cup, a lever and a food cup. It is arranged so that when a rat (hungry or thirsty) presses the lever the feeder mechanism is activated, a light or a special sound is produced and a small pallet of food or small drops of water is released into the food cup. For recording the observation of the experiments, the lever is connected with a recorder system which produces a graphical tracing of the lever pressing against the length of the time the rat is in box.

To begin with, Skinner, in one of his experiments, placed a hungry rat in the box. In this experiment pressing of the bar in a desirable way by the rat could result in the production of a click- sound acted as a cue or signal indicating to the rat if it respond by going to the food cup, it will be rewarded. The rat was rewarded for each of his proper attempts for pressing the lever. The lever press response having been a rewarded, was repeated and when it occurred, it was again rewarded which further increased the probability of the repetition of the lever press response and so on. In this way ultimately the rat learned the act of pressing the lever as desired by the experimenter

For doing experiments with pigeons Skinner made use of another specific apparatus called ‘pigeon box’. A pigeon in this experiment had to peck at a lighted plastic key mounted on the wall at head high was subsequently rewarded by receiving grain. With the help of such experiments, Skinner put forward his theory of operant conditioning for learning not only the simple responses like pressing of the lever but also for learning the most difficult and complex series of responses pressing of the lever or latch but also for learning the most difficult and complex series of responses.

Although classified and included in the category of conditioning, operant conditioning differs a lot from the classical conditioning advocated by Watson and Pavlov. The most outstanding difference lies in the order related with the initiation and response i.e. stimulus response mechanism. In classical conditioning the organism is passive. It must wait for something to happen for responding. The presence of a stimulus for evoking a response is essential. The behavior can not be emitted in the absence of a cause. The child expresses fear when he hears a loud noise; the dog waits for food to arrive before salivating. In each of such instances, the subject has no control over the happening. He is made to behave in response to the stimulus situations. Thus, the behavior is said to be initiated by the environment, the organism simply responds.

Skinner revolted against ‘no stimulus no response’ mechanism in the evolution of behavior. He argued that in practical situation in our life we can not wait for things to happen in the environment. Man is not a victim of the environment. He may often manipulate the things in the environment with his own initiative. Therefore, it is not always essential that there must be some know stimulus or causes of evoking a response. Quite often, most of our responses could not be attributed to the known stimuli. The organism itself initiates the behavior. A dog, a child, or an individual ‘does” something ‘behaves’ in some manner, it ‘operates’ on the environment and in turn environment responds to the activity. How the environment responds to the activity, rewarding or not, largely determines whether the behavior will be repeated, maintained or avoided.

From where Skinner got the cue for such ideas in a question that can arise at this stage. Definitely it was from the studies and observations of an earlier psychologist named Thorndike. Through his experiments, for propagating his famous trial and error theory of learning. Thorndike concluded that the rewards of a response (like getting food after chance success through the randomized movements) lead to the repetition of an act and the strengthening of S-R associations. These conclusions made Skinner begin a series of experiments to find the consequences of the rewards in repeating and maintaining behavior. Based on the findings of his experiments, he concluded that “behavior is shaped and maintain by its consequences”. It is operated by the organism and maintained by itself. The occurrence of such behavior was named as operant behavior and the process of learning, that plays the part in learning such behavior, was named by him as operant conditioning

Some concepts used by Skinner for bringing out his theory of learning---------- Operant conditioning.

Operant:  Skinner considers an operant as a set of acts that constitutes an organism’s doing something e.g raising its head, walking about, pushing a lever, etc

Reinforcer and Reinforcement;

The concept of reinforcement is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response re-occurring. Skinner thinks to two kinds of reinforcers—positive and negative.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus the introduction or presentation of which increase the likelihood of a particular behavior. Food, water etc, are classified as positive reinforcers. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which increases the likelihood of a particular behavior. Electric shock, loud noise etc, are said to be negative reinforcers

 is the reinforcement operation schedule of gambling devices. Here rewards are unpredictable and keep the players well-motivated thou Operant: Skinner considers an operant as a set of acts that constitutes an organism’s doing something e.g., raising its head, walking about, pushing a lever, etc.

Reinforcer and Reinforcement: The concept of reinforcement is identical to the presentation of a reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response re-occurring. Skinner thinks of two kinds of reinforcers_____Positive and Negative.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus the introduction or presentation of which increase the likelihood of a particular behavior, food and water are classified as positive reinforcers. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which decreases the likelihood of a particular behavior. Electric shock, a loud noise, etc are said to be negative reinforcers.

The schedules of Reinforcement: Skinner put forward the idea of planning of schedules of reinforcement of conditioning the operant behavior of the organism.

1. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule:  It is hundred percent reinforcement schedules where provision is made to reinforce or reward every correct response of the organism during acquisition of learning. For example, a student may be rewarded for every correct answer he gives to questions or problems put by the teacher.

2. Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule:  In this schedule the organism is rewarded for a response made only after a set of interval of time e.g., every 3 minutes or every 5 minutes. How many times he has given correct response during this fixed interval of time does not matter, it is only on the expiry of the fixed interval that he is presented with some reinforcement.

3. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule: In this schedule the reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. A rat, for example, might be given a pallet of food after a certain number of level presses. The child solves five sums and he gets a chocolate.

4. Variable Reinforcement Schedule: when reinforcement is given at varying  intervals of time or after a varying number of responses, it is called a variable reinforcement schedule. In this case reinforcement is intermittent or irregular. The individual does not know when he is going to be rewarded and consequently he remains motivated throughout the learning process in the wait of reinforcement. For example the card game and gambling, try and try again slogan, In classroom teaching learning VR schedule operates when student is not allowed to reinforce each time he raises his hand to answer a question, but the more often he raises his hand, the more likely he is to called upon by the teacher. Good marks and promotion may come at unpredictable time.

Defining Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps in the learning of operant behavior, the behavior that is not necessarily associated with a known stimuli.

The difference between the two types of conditioning 

Classical respondent conditioning Operant conditioning

1. It helps in the learning of respondent behavior.

2. It is called type S conditioning to emphasize the importance of the stimulus in eliciting desired response.

3. In this type of conditioning beginning is being made with the help of specific stimuli that bring certain responses.

4. Here strength of conditioning is usually determined by the magnitude of the conditioned response i.e. the amount of saliva 

5.we present the ucs regardless of whether the CRoccurs

6. in classical conditioning stress is laid on the time control

7. classical conditioning is stimulus oriented

8. Respondent behavior is internal and has a secret , secret quality about it

1. It helps in the learning of operant behavior.

2. It is called R type conditioning because of the emphasis on the response.

3. Here beginning is made with the responses as they occur naturally or unnaturally shaping them into existence.

4. here strength of conditioning is shown by the responses i.e.,. the rate with which an operant response occurs as a result of some reinforcement

5. We present the stimulus only if only the organism makes the desired response.

6. place of motivation and reward is stress

7. Operant conditioning is response oriented.

8.Operant is external behavior, it is the behaviour with which the organism operates on environment

definition and concept|co-curricular activities

 Definition and Concept of Co-Curricular Activities  ijird journal:

Definition;

A co-curricular activity is defined as a program or out-of-class activity, supervised and/or financed by the school, which provides curriculum-related learning and character building experiences. Co-curricular activities are voluntary, are not part of the regular school curriculum, are not graded and do not earn credits. It is the intent of the School Committee by this policy to encourage academic effort and achievement by the students of the Portland Public Schools. 

"Co-curricular activities" means activities conducted on or off school premises by clubs, associations, and organizations of pupils sponsored by the Board of Education; "co-curricular activities" also includes the pupil clubs, associations, and organizations that conduct those activities. "Co-curricular activities" does not include athletic competitions or practices or athletic teams or organizations. 

Co-curricular activities (CCAs), previously known as Extracurricular Activities (ECA) are activities that educational organizations in some parts of the world create for school students. They are activities which all school students must attend alongside. In Singapore, the policy was introduced by the Ministry of Education, which believes extra activities for school students are a means to enhance social interaction, leadership, healthy recreation, self-discipline and self-confidence. At higher levels of education, CCA participation may even translate into academic points.

Concept of Co-curricular Activities;

Before discussing the importance and need of co-curricular activities, let us be clear about the concept of co-curricular activities.

Four decades ago it was comparatively easy to define co-curricular activities because all of them were organized and promoted largely by students themselves, with relatively little assistance from teachers and administrators. Equipments were meager, little official recognition was given and no credit was allowed for participation.

These activities were really extra curricular.

Today, it is difficult to define co-curricular activities because all teachers have some definite responsibilities for their organization; many full time professional teachers are employed, school rooms, time, equipment and materials are provided; their relationships with regular curricular activities are regarded as vital; credit for participation is allowed and recognition is also given.

In short, we can say that according to modem education thinkers, curriculum is not only teaching and learning in classroom. It also includes work in library, laboratory and workshop, participation in games and sports in playground and numerous informal contacts between teacher and pupils in these places. In these informal contacts there are very many activities. one of which is co-curricular activities. It is a part of curriculum of the institution.

Importance and Scope of Co-Curricular Activities;

Importance of Co-Curricular Activities;

Looking at the list of various types of activities, the question will arise in your mind is how do these activities help us in achieving the objectives of education. Also what is the need and importance of these activities? Let us first discuss the advantages. Curricular activities have a number of values like;

1.    Educational value, 

2.    Psychological Values, 

3.    Development of Social Values, 

4.    Development of Civic Values, 

5.    Physical Development Values, 

6.    Recreational Values, 

7.    Cultural Values,

Let us discuss them one by one.

1. Educational Value

These activities have great "educational" potential. All classroom teaching is theoretical.

Practical knowledge can be imparted through co-curricular activities.

Excursions and tours provide firsthand experience and reinforce classroom knowledge in subjects like history, geography, nature study etc.

Language and expression improves through debates and recitations. . Teaching of History gets vitalized by dramatization.

Practical lessons in civics can be given through student self-government.

School magazines teach students the art of writing forcefully and effectively.

Celebration of functions develops organizational capacities and leadership qualities in students.

Projects provide direct learning opportunities.

2. Psychological Value

These activities as the name suggests meet the psychological needs of the students, mainly with reference to social demands of the pupils. They help in expressing personal behavior and provide a vehicle for creative thinking.

a) These Activities act as Agent for Sublimation of the Instincts

Co-curricular activities are a means of channelizing students' instincts into healthy and fruitful channels e.g. instinct of curiosity can be fruitfully channelized by library, stamp and coin collection etc. The instinct of gregariousness can be directed through self-government, social service and other group work.

b) Emotional 'Health

A student is a bundle of innate urges or drives. It is natural for him/her to be curious, to show off, to master, to be loyal and to be sympathetic. Co-curricular activities provide valuable opportunities in which these drives may be capitalized for educational benefit.

But fortunately or unfortunately, they may not come up to the required expectation e.g. some students who are backward in studies develop inferiority complex and find school life disgusting and can get emotionally unbalanced. Such activities provide a means of emotional adjustment for students.

C) To’ Increase the Interest of Students

A student who gives his time and effort to his school is, therefore, more interested in it, because of his contributions e.g. the athlete talks about school spirit.

d) Recognition of Individual Differences Co-curricular Activities

By providing a number of co-curricular activities, we can ensure the expression of potential capacities of each individual e.g. writing, public speaking, dramatics, painting, different games and sports, organization of functions etc. which provide training in different aspects of personality of students. These activities, thus, cater to aptitude, interests and abilities of students and sometimes act as a determining factor for the choice of future vocation.

3. Development of Social Value

Social cooperation is recognized as one of the important demands of citizenship. It is difficult to teach through school subjects like Languages, Mathematics or Social Sciences. By 'participating in group activities, students learn good manners and develop a sense of cooperation. Membership in a club, student council, dramatic cast or an athletic team requires co-operation. Students learn to appreciate the relationship of an individual to the social group.

Through team activities, students learn social cooperation. They develop group spirit, 'we' - feeling, belongingness, unity and ability to be co-operative.

4. Development of Civic Value

In group activities students learn the value of doing one's duty. For example, students' self-government in schools provides an excellent training in exercising one's franchise and shouldering responsibilities. These activities train the students for good citizenship. Co curricular activities offer many opportunities for the development of self-discipline e.g. NCC and ACC. They develop in students a spirit of toleration of others' views, healthy exchange of ideas, fellow feeling and accepting victory and defeat with grace.

Secondly, the school is a miniature society and the activities of the school should have direct relations with the activities of the society.

Qualities like initiative and leadership are not always developed in a classroom. On the playground, students get opportunities to develop leadership qualities like initiative, decision-making, judgment, tolerance etc. These qualities are required for a democratic society. Many girls and boys have little practice in controlling themselves and in directing their own affairs.

They have not developed the ability to do these things. As a result, when they are placed in settings that demand self-direction, they are lost. Co-curricular activities provide numerous situations in which students may gradually get increasing responsibilities for their own direction.

The settings for developing these carry-over values must be definitely provided. A school must be a workshop in democracy.

The traits and qualities of leadership are developed in students, when they organize these activities by themselves under the guidance of teachers. Students learn to plan, organize and

I execute the plan that has been developed. This develops in them initiative, planning, thinking and power of independent judgment.

These activities provide excellent moral training. Through these activities are learnt the importance of obeying the law, rules and regulations, love for truth and above all, these activities develop moral consciousness by providing moral experiences. For example, a boy in charge of finances has to act honestly. On the play field, one has to show sportsman spirit.

5. Physical Development Value

While games, sports and athletics directly contribute to physical development of students, other co-curricular activities also indirectly contribute to it. These activities provide a useful channel for the growth and development of the body.

6. Recreational Value

Lack of ability and training in proper utilization of one's leisure time is one of the major defects in our present system of education. By providing and organizing various activities, we provide wholesome opportunities to our students, rather than to spend their spare time in undesirable activities e.g. Movies, TV, idle talk etc. Hobbies developed at the secondary school stage become lifelong habits.

7. Cultural Virtue

Some co*curricular activities are of tremendous value, as they help in providing opportunities for better understanding of our cultural heritage and traditions, for example, activities like dramatics, folk songs, dance, folk music, exhibitions and celebration of various religious and social festivals provide better knowledge and understanding of our culture, foster cultural tastes and awaken cultural interests among students. Student would appreciate to learn all these though our language, religion, culture, food habits, dress etc. are different but we are one, and that we are leman beings of the same universe.

Thus, co-curricular activities will help in developing national and international understanding.

We can concede by saying that co-curricular activities cater to the development of a child's entire personality, draw out the latent powers of children of different temperaments, supplement academic work, develop social and civic sense. Without these activities students would be mere book-worms.

These activities are really important as they have a potential of developing the intellect of a student which is always not possible with theoretic procedures. For this co-curricular activities need to be effective so that they can give the right exposure to the mind. When effective these activities provide a practical hands-on approach to the students which provide similar experiences which they will face in the outside world. Such experiences go a long way in producing multi-faceted personalities which, in due course of time may bring honor to the country as well. Students have a right to a broad education. A wide range of experiences prepare students better for the future, especially in today’s uncertain world.

 Broad education can provide better preparation for life in a society where an individual may need to change career several times in their life. Student minds aren't mature enough to ascertain what's good and what's bad for them? Their decisions may be influenced by peer pressure etc. but at the same time these activities should not be forced.

 Co-curricular activities need to be more refined, varied and interesting so as to be widely accepted and successful. A successful co-curriculum builds links between the school and the wider community, bringing local enthusiasts in to work with students, and sending students out to work on community projects.

 Many children have talents in all sorts of different areas, and it is wrong to force them to specialize too early. A career is not the only part of an adult’s life – school needs to make sure they have interests and skills that will help them in their family and leisure lives too. Through equal balancing of academic and co-curriculum, the students have the chance to exercise their rights and the opportunity to be multi-talented.

Role of Co-Curricular Activities in a Student's Life

• It helps to develop the all-round personality of the students to face the undaunted task and turbulent world of future. Experience and accolades gained through many of these activities help during internships and other school sponsored work programs. 

• The aim of curricular activities is to make the students fit for the future time and to develop a sense of competitive spirit, co-operation, leadership, diligence, punctuality, and team-spirit as well as to provide a backdrop for the development of their creative talents. Whenever someone is chosen as a head boy or is given leadership in certain matters, it boosts self-confidence and sense of achievement. 

• Extra activities for school students are a means to enhance social interaction, leadership, healthy recreation, self-discipline and self-confidence. Competitions may also be organized to create a competitive environment and groups with an objective to work towards a better society and the world as well. 

• In today's competitive world, percentage makes a lot of difference during admission into various courses. Such students are given preference as compared to non participants. These may make a difference when the students are considered for the most popular courses. 

• When the students in their early teens are given some responsibilities like giving first aid they acquire a sense of responsibility. 

• Some tasks require precision, management and organizational and such activities provide training to prepare students for the outside world. 

• In polytechnics and universities, certificates of such activities are given weight age by potential employers. 

• Students in the form of Alumni etc., act as counselors or guides in their respective institutions in such matters. They impart what they have learned to their juniors. Whilst doing so they are imparting knowledge and helping in the development of  a productive society. 

• Such activities divert student's attention from harmful activities like drugs, crime etc. It channelizes their energies in fruitful activities. 

• Physical activities like running, football etc. help not only in the physical fitness they also refresh the burdened mind. 

• Success in organizations requires more than high intellect. Thus, college recruiters commonly examine job candidates' extracurricular activities in search of well-rounded, emotionally intelligent, and interpersonally skilled students. Intuitively, extracurricular activities are like valuable student experiences. 

Scope of CCAs

•         The scope of CCAs is wide due to a nearly inexhaustible list of interests. Some of the major groups include Computer Club, Art Club, Dance Club, Swimming, Basketball and Photography Club. Uniformed groups include the St. John Ambulance Brigade (SJAB), Red Cross, Military Band, The Singapore Scout Association, Girl Guides Singapore, National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) and National Cadet Corps (NCC). Performing arts groups are also included, with Chinese Orchestra, choirs, bands and Dance Clubs among such CCAs.

• CCAs are held outside standard curriculum hours and the activities partaken depend on the nature of CCA. For example, uniformed groups do foot drills and team-building exercises while competitive sportsmen spend most of the time training and learning techniques from their instructors.

• In the first year, the students are required to pick one or more interest group to join. While the choices available to students differ from school to school, there are national requirements for the different levels of education.

• In some primary schools, students may choose not to join a CCA. In primary school, Brownies are likened to junior Girl Guides.

• There is a wide choice of CCAs in schools, for which students can sign up based on their interest and ability.

• In secondary schools, CCAs are treated more seriously. Belonging to a Core CCA is compulsory, and the students may choose a second CCA if they wish. At the end of the fourth/fifth year, 1 to 2 'O' Level points are removed from the examination aggregate (a lower aggregate indicates better marks).

 Although the marks are few, it is believed by many that they may make a difference when the students are considered for the most popular tertiary school courses. For example, to enter RIJC via the 'O' Levels requires a perfect score as well as removal of points. 

In addition, as the students are in their early teens, they are given some responsibilities. Red Cross and SJAB members, for example, are often required to render first aid at public events. Most uniformed groups require precision, management and organizational skills, providing training to prepare students for the outside world. In polytechnics and universities (tertiary education institutes), CCA records are considered by potential employers

.CCA groups are mostly groups catering to specific interests. Such groups would elect from among themselves a Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer, among other positions. The National Police Cadet Corps has started a few Open Units in the tertiary institutions, recruiting members to serve as student leaders in the secondary school units.

• Many former students return to their alma mater after graduation to help impart what they have learned to their juniors. Some do so within a formal framework, such as those in the uniformed groups (where ex-cadets are appointed as cadet officers), or the Voluntary Adult Leader scheme (for those above age 20). Others do so on a casual basis.

• Competitions may also be organized to create a competitive environment and provide such CCA groups with an objective to work towards. In Singapore, there are competitions at the zonal and national level. These include the Annual Zonal and National Sporting Competitions for sportsmen and the bi-annual Singapore Youth Festival for the Aesthetics-related CCAs.

• Co-curricular activities are those activities which fall outside the regular academic curriculum. They are also know as 'Extra-curricular' activities. Most of the educational organizations in various different parts of the world facilitate these activities for school and college students. Faculty is mostly involved in organizing and directing these activities in schools while it maybe independent from faculty in universities or colleges. 

Extracurricular activities exist at all levels of education, from 4th-6th, junior high/middle school, high school, college and university education. These activities are compulsory in some institutions while in others it's voluntary. Where these are compulsory all school students must participate them alongside the standard study curriculum. 

At higher levels of education student participation generally include academic points in lieu of the efforts put by a student in a particular activity. These are held outside standard curriculum hours and the activities partaken depend on the nature of the institute and occasion. 

Catholic convents schools have generally have Christmas celebration as a major part of the co-curricular activities due to catholic significance. While some schools are more inclined towards annual function. Some give significance to both. Today these activities have become more profound than ever before.

 Most of the institutes highlight them as a crucial advertising factor in their prospectus or advertisements in order to attract parent-students attention. Though not all of these activities may pursued with great enthusiasm these are however popular and leave a life long lasting experience for most. 

These activities are not examined in the same way that the academic curriculum is, and because most of them take place outside lessons, such activities have less status in education than the main curriculum. However, they are often held to be very important to the wider education of young men and women.

 Co-curricular activities form the core of students' life. Many schools and colleges have different units like clubs or houses in which  all the students have been divided into four houses. Each house has a house Master & staff of the school  to guide the students for various internal competitions

Types of Co-curricular Activities

Co-curricular activities are categorized under seven headings;

I. Literary Activities

2. Physical Development Activities

3. Aesthetic and Cultural Development Activities

4. Civic Development Activities

5. Social Welfare Activities

6. Leisure Time Activities CO-curricular activities

7. Excursion Activities

Types of Co-Curricular activities

• Morning assembly programmes. 

• Inter-House competitions. 

• House meetings. 

• English recitation. 

• Hindi calligraphy. 

• English calligraphy. 

• On the spot drawing & painting competition.      

• Group singing. 

• Hindi elocution (pronunciation). 

• English elocution. 

• Solo singing / rhymes. 

• Quiz competitions. 

• Moot (debatable) courts. 

• Rangoli competitions. 

• Individual talent show. 

• Guest talk / slide show. 

• Fancy dress. 

• Various activity clubs. 

• NCC - National Cadet Corps. 

• School band. 

• Scout association. 

• Girl guides. 

• Performing arts. 

• School choirs (singing groups). 

• Foot drills. 

• Annual functions. 

• National sporting competitions. 

• Youth festivals. 

Assessment of student|method of assessment|self assessment

 Student Assessment:

Student assessment is one of the key issues in education. How do we know if students have learned what we are trying to teach them? There are multiple forms of assessment available. We believe that offering varied methods is the best model. You will find in the following documents some examples of different types of assessment, and how some MSU faculties have used them. You will also find resources and guides.

Assessing student performance:

Assessment can be based on writing an individual paper, preparing a group presentation, class participation, attendance, homework problem sets, exams (essay, short answer, multiple choice, true/false), and so on. Alternatively, when a student performs a task rather than taking a test, it is called performance assessment. Examples of performance assessment include: debating a topic; demonstrating a skill; conducting an experiment and writing the results; doing a project; or compiling a portfolio of work.

Ideally the assessment process informs the teacher and the learner about learner progress and at the same time, contributes to the learning process. In theory, good assessment:

• measures meaningful learning outcomes

• does so in a fair, reliable, accurate way

• is easy to administer, score, and interpret

• informs the teacher about student performance and how they are interpreting course experiences

• results in meaningful feedback to the learner

• is itself a learning experience

Feedback on assessment:

Feedback is a very important part of learning. Feedback is the mechanism that lets the learner know whether they are on the right track. Assessment and measurement strategies provide feedback to both the student and instructor. Students learn more effectively if they receive frequent, meaningful, and rapid feedback. Feedback may come from the instructor directly, from assignments and assessments which have feedback built into them, or even from other students.

Feedback to learners about where they are and where their instructors want them to be comes in many different ways, such as:

• instructor participation in a discussion assignment

• writing assignments that require submission of a draft for instructor comments and suggestions for improvement

• self-mastery tests and quizzes that include informative feedback with each answer choice

• interactive games and simulations that have feedback built in

Technology can provide automated assessments which provide instant right or wrong feedback. Interactive media provide feedback when they add a visual change to indicate mouse over, or a sound to accompany an action. This very simple form of feedback lets the learner know their input has been received. More sophisticated technologies can offer constructive criticism. Technology can also help by gathering and organizing student performances and making it easy to offer feedback. However, human participation is often a necessary part of feedback.

Methods of Assessment:

Pre-testing:

You might find it helpful to find out whether your students meet the basic knowledge and skill levels required to learn your materials. Use a pre-test to find out. Pre-tests are often paired with remedial materials.

Some instructors offer self-assessment pre-tests prior to the beginning day of class and offer students ways to catch up before the first day. Others provide time during the first week for students to do such things. Alternatively, you could pre-test prior to each module, week or topic.

Practice exams:

Practice exams and problem set homework are popular with students in courses which use exams for grading. Students who complete a practice exam usually encounter fewer problems on the official exam. Technical problems have been worked out, and the student knows what to expect in terms of types of questions.

It's important to let the student know that practice exam questions will be similar to what they will find on their exams. However, the specifics will differ based on course content. For example, a nursing case study will be presented and students will need to identify specifics relating to the case. In exam, they will view case studies, but the details will differ. Students are very likely to complete a practice exam which parallels the real exam even though it does not count toward their grade.

Subjective assessment:

In subjective assessments the teacher's judgment determines the grade. These include essay tests. Essay tests take longer to answer and they take longer to grade than objective questions and therefore only include a small number of questions, focusing on complex concepts.

Objective assessment:

Objective assessments (usually multiple choice, true false, short answer) have correct answers. These are good for testing recall of facts and can be automated. Objective tests assume that there are true answers and assume that all students should learn the same things.

Self-assessment:

Self-assessment types of assignments are provided for quick student feedback. Self-assessments:

• help the learner check if they have mastered a topic

• provide opportunity to measure learning progress

• are usually voluntary and may allow multiple attempts

• inform the learner, but not the teacher

• can occur whenever a performance activity is linked with feedback about that performance.

Self-assessment examples:

• practice quizzes

• games, simulations, and other interactive exercises

• practice written assignments

• peer reviews

• true-false questions

Interactive assessments:

Interactive experiences can be designed as spaces within which learners can perform a task. These experiences can be graded or not. Interactive software can administer quizzes and give instant, usually fun, right-wrong feedback and perhaps explanations of right answers. Examples of interactive assessment:

• A simulator that lets learners virtually drive, facing the full range of driving challenges along the way. Simulators can be used both to teach and to test through performance in the simulation.

• students could conduct a virtual experiment rather than an experiment in a physical laboratory

• language software might have sophisticated speech recognition software to provide feedback about pronunciation

• Creation of an online tool, such as a virtual instrument. Students could perform a song, and the software provides feedback about accuracy and timing.

• A game where the goal is to find life in other solar systems. Making sound decisions about where to search, how to get there, and what to look for earns points but also shows that you are learning.

Group projects:

Group projects are more challenging in a fully online course because the online tools often must handle all collaboration. Students do not necessarily live in the same time zone or even on the same continent, there is no set class meeting time, and they may have vastly different schedules. Some online students do their classwork during the week, others work only on weekends. Some like the idea of meeting in-person with their group, others prefer asynchronous collaboration. A majority prefer not to do group work at all. Some students start and finish projects early (they always turn things in first) and others wait until the last minute. Invariably there will be complaints about group members who are not participating.

In real life many projects are team efforts. There is a great deal of learning value in discussion and collaboration. Tools which can facilitate group collaboration include asynchronous discussion tools for group communication, file sharing to share and revise documents, and chat tools for real-time discussion.

Smaller groups are more manageable. Teams of two are easier to coordinate than larger teams, although some courses do groups of 5 or 6. It is important to carefully assign the groups based on when they like to work and how they prefer to collaborate. Define clear roles, and include peer review of group participation as part of the grade. You can ask students to keep a log of their process and procedures. Provide a "panic button" for students whose team members have disappeared, so you can help them either decide to work alone or connect with another group.

Proctored exams:

One anti-cheating strategy is to require students to arrange for a proctor at a local community college, university or library. The proctor is typically located by the student and approved by the instructor. The proctor checks photo ID and monitors the student while they take the exam. Exams are submitted online, or in some cases, printed and faxed by the proctor to the instructor. This can be inconvenient for distant students to arrange and for the instructor to coordinate. MSU testing office participates in a free referral service that facilitates distance learning. If you’re interested in learning more about this service  please visit the MSU Testing Office and inquire about Distance Testing. 

MSU Example:

The LearnDAT online remedial math course, jointly offered by MSU and San Francisco State University, used five online exams and two proctored in-person exams. The math faculty at San Francisco State University have compared grades between the online and in person exams and found a high level of consistency in the grades, suggesting cheating is not occurring in the online exams. The instructional team is now much more confident in the integrity of the online exams. Their online exams have 20 questions; each question is drawn from a separate pool of five choices. The order of the questions and answers are randomized.

Students as audience and peer review:

In the classroom, time constraints prevent students from being able to review each other’s projects in detail. It is easy to post projects online where everyone can see them. The work is thus a public performance, a potential source of pride or embarrassment. It is helpful for other students to see the scope of work produced by others. They may be motivated on the next assignment by seeing other outstanding projects.

Peer review can be an effective learning technique. Taking on the role of judge is a different mode of understanding the goals of an assignment.

Participation:

Class participation can be an alternative method of assessing the student. A good way to encourage class participation is to make it part of the overall course grade. Class participation may include answering reflective questions in a course module, taking part in weekly class discussions, providing peer review critiques of fellow students' assignments, or locating and contributing online resources to a class-created knowledgebase.

The quality and quantity of submissions can be used to determine the grade. Some LMSs can track the number of posts a student makes to a discussion forum or live chat.

Other kinds of assessment:

Alternative methods of assessment are limited only by your imagination. Consider assigning reflective journals, one minute papers, contributions to digital archives, or portfolios.

Assessment of students achievements|PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT|STUDENT HELP

 Assessment of students achievements:

Assessment is the process of observing a sample of a student’s behavior and drawing inferences about the student’s knowledge and abilities.When we are looking at students’ behavior, we typically only use a sample of classroom behavior.

• Assessment instruments do not dictate the decisions to be made.
• Teachers, administrators, government officials, parents, and even students interpret assessment                 results and make decisions based on the results.
• Assessments are tools that allow us to make informed decisions about how best to help our                       students learn and achieve

• Assessment interpretation can be abused.

There types of assessment:

 There are three main types of Assessment.

• Summative Assessment

• Interim Assessment

• Formative Assessment

Summative Assessment:

Summative Assessment takes place at the end of a large chunk of learning, with the results being primarily for the teacher's or school's use. Results may take time to be returned to the student/parent, feedback to the student is usually very limited, and the student usually has no opportunity to be reassessed. Thus, Summative Assessment tends to have the least impact on improving an individual student's understanding or performance. Students/parents can use the results of Summative Assessments to see where the student's performance lies compared to either a standard (MEAP/MME) or to a group of students (usually a grade-level group, such as all 6th graders nationally, such as Iowa Tests or ACT). Teachers/schools can use these assessments to identify strengths and weaknesses of curriculum and instruction, with improvements affecting the next year's/term's students.

Examples: Standardized testing (MEAP, MME, ACT, Work Keys, Terra Nova, etc.); Final exams; Major cumulative projects, research projects, and performances.

Interim Assessment:

Interim Assessment takes place occasionally throughout a larger time period. Feedback to the learner is still quick, but may not be immediate. Interim Assessments tend to be more formal, using tools such as projects, written assignments, and tests. The learner should be given the opportunity to re-demonstrate his/her understanding once the feedback has been digested and acted upon. Interim Assessments can help teachers identify gaps in student understanding and instruction, and ideally teachers address these before moving on or by weaving remedies into upcoming instruction and activities.

Examples: Chapter test; extended essay; a project scored with a rubric.

Formative Assessment:

Formative Assessment occurs in the short term, as learners are in the process of making meaning of new content and of integrating it into what they already know. Feedback to the learner is immediate (or nearly so), to enable the learner to change his/her behavior and understandings right away. Formative Assessment also enables the teacher to "turn on a dime" and rethink instructional strategies, activities, and content based on student understanding and performance. His/her role here is comparable to that of a coach. Formative Assessment can be as informal as observing the learner's work or as formal as a written test. Formative Assessment is the most powerful type of assessment for improving student understanding and performance.

Examples: a very interactive class discussion; a warm-up, closure, or exit slip; an on-the-spot performance; a quiz. 

PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT:

• To promote learning

• In order for assessment to promote students’ learning and achievement, it should:

1. Provide specific & concrete feedback

2. Act as a learning experience, letting students know what they have and have not mastered

3. Act as a motivator—students should know what to study and when

4. Act as a review mechanism

5. Influence cognitive processing

6. To guide instructional decision making

7. To assist in the diagnosis of learning and performance problems

8. To promote self-regulation

9. To determine what students have learned

curriculum development in pakistan|general recommendation for curriculum development process

 CURRICLUM DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

5.1 problems of curriculum development in Pakistan and suggestions for its improvement.

 Falling education standard is one of the most favorite topics for discussion at our social gatherings. Everyone has his own views and experiences to narrate and ultimately, to lament and then recall the good old days when everything was at its best.

It is a known fact that our educational standards are one the decline. We have progressed in quantitative expansion but gone backward qualitatively, in the government policies there are planning and recommendations for the revolutionary steps but the progress in negligible.

We have innovative ideas but unable to implement any positive change effectively. That is why we could not achieve the desired goals. We have many leaders in education but most of them are without dedication to work. We have many schools, colleges and universities but they are working only to award certificates and degrees to the students without changing their attitude. The students are just memorizing facts and information from their text material without developing proper concepts to apply in daily life. Teachers are following conventional methods such as the lecture. Textbook recitation and notes dictation. The innovative methods are not followed even in teacher training institutes. The textbooks are also theoretical ignoring the activities. All these and many more are the curriculum related problems. These problems are identified by various policies along appropriate recommendations as given on the next page.

5.2 Problems of Curriculum Development Process

If we look to the various phases or elements of curriculum development process. So many problems can be indicated i.e.

A. Problems related to objectives.

B. Problems related to content.

C. Problems related to methods.

D. Problems related to audio-visual aids.

E. Problems related to evolution.

a. problems Related to Objective 

The curriculum development is a continuous and dynamic process, having some goals to be achieved though classroom activates.

The effectiveness of curriculum process depends largely upon the extent to which these goals are achieved. If the objectives are formulated in clear an behavioral terms, their achievement becomes easy. The objectives formulated for the existing curricula are mostly ambiguous and non behavioral such types of objectives can be considered as invalid. Some of the objectives are too broad to achieve and some of them are not related to the socio economic conditions in the country. There are certain objectives that are not according to the psychological needs of the learners.

b. Problems Related to Content

It has already been mentioned that curriculum development is a dynamic process. So it must be flexible enough to be changed from time to time along with the changes occurring in the society. But in our country, researches in curriculum development are very rare which make it static.

Some to the defects of existing subject matter are as under;

• The content is not selected on the basis of research.

• To content does not help in the achievement of desired goals.

• The content is not suitable to the life situation of the learners.

• There is a lack of horizontal and vertical coordination in various concepts.

• The content does not demand active participation of learners, instead it encourages rote memory.

• Logical sequence (when required) is missing.

• The subject matter does not help in the development of understanding, indicative reasoning and desired creative abilities.

c. Problems Related to Methods

The problems of curriculum development related to methods of instruction are:

• Methods of instruction are not suggested by the curriculum planners.

• Methods of instruction which are being followed in the classroom do not help in the achievement of desired goals.

• Teachers take last interest in inquiry-based methods.

• Participatory or communicative approaches are not followed in the class.

• Methods are not helping the learners to develop various skills.

• The existing teacher training programmes do not fulfill the requirements of the innovative methods.

• Teachers are reluctant to follow activity-based methods.

d. Problems Related to Audio-visual Aids

• Lack of sources and resources educational institutes affects badly the implementation proves of curriculum development.

• Teachers are not properly trained preparation and used of low cost material.

• The curriculum planners have not given any guidelines to the teachers to use the local resources as audio-visual aids.

e. Problems Related to Evaluation 

• Proper evaluation programme is not suggested by the curriculum planners.

• The test items are not related to the objective sof the relevant course.

• Most of the test items are ambiguous.

• Only cognitive aspect is emphasized in evaluation.

• The content validity is very low existing evaluation system.

• The concept of continuous evaluation in to applied.

5.3 GENERAL RECOMMENDATION FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

• The curriculum should base upon native research and not on the basis of opinions of experts.

• Some of the enthusiast working teachers should be involved in curriculum development.

• The objectives must be spelt out in specific behavioral terms.

• While setting the objectives, equal weightage must be given to all the domains such as cognitive effective and psychomotor.

• Curricum should be future oriented to cope with the needs of 21st century, whcich is expected to be scientific and techonological.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)|A Legacy of Exploration and Discovery

 The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)|A Legacy of Exploration and Discovery

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, commonly referred to as NASA, has been the forefront of space exploration and scientific discovery for over six decades. Established on July 29, 1958, NASA was created in response to the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the world's first artificial satellite. Since its inception, NASA has been responsible for some of the most significant achievements in the history of space exploration.

Early Years: Mercury and Gemini Programs

NASA's early years were marked by the Mercury program, which aimed to launch the first American astronauts into space. On May 5, 1961, NASA successfully launched astronaut Alan Shepard into space aboard the Freedom 7 spacecraft, making him the first American in space. The Mercury program paved the way for the Gemini program, which focused on developing the capabilities for a manned mission to the Moon.

The Gemini program, which ran from 1961 to 1966, saw the first American spacewalks, the first rendezvous and docking of two spacecraft in orbit, and the longest-duration spaceflight to date. The Gemini program laid the foundation for the Apollo program, which would ultimately put humans on the Moon.

Apollo Program: Landing on the Moon

The Apollo program, which ran from 1961 to 1972, was NASA's most ambitious undertaking to date. The program aimed to land humans on the Moon and return them safely to Earth. On July 20, 1969, NASA achieved this goal when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first humans to set foot on the Moon's surface.

The Apollo program consisted of 11 manned missions, with six of them landing on the Moon. The program also included several unmanned test flights and a series of lunar orbiters. The Apollo program marked a major milestone in the history of space exploration and cemented NASA's position as a leader in the field.

Space Shuttle Program

In the 1970s and 1980s, NASA developed the Space Shuttle program, which aimed to provide a reusable spacecraft that could carry crew and cargo into low Earth orbit. The Space Shuttle program, which ran from 1981 to 2011, consisted of five orbiters: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour.

The Space Shuttle program was marked by several notable achievements, including the deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope, the construction of the International Space Station, and the conduct of numerous scientific experiments. However, the program was also marred by two major tragedies: the loss of the Challenger in 1986 and the loss of the Columbia in 2003.

International Space Station

In the 1990s, NASA began collaborating with international partners to develop the International Space Station (ISS). The ISS, which was launched in 1998, is a habitable artificial satellite that orbits the Earth at an altitude of around 250 miles.

The ISS serves as a research laboratory, observatory, and testbed for spaceflight technologies. The station is occupied by a rotating crew of astronauts and cosmonauts, who conduct scientific experiments, perform maintenance tasks, and carry out spacewalks.

Mars Exploration

In recent years, NASA has shifted its focus towards exploring the planet Mars. The agency's Mars Exploration Program, which was established in the 1990s, aims to explore the Martian surface and search for signs of life.

NASA's Mars program has included several notable missions, such as the Mars Pathfinder, the Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity Rover), and the InSight Lander. The Curiosity Rover, which was launched in 2011, has been exploring the Martian surface since 2012 and has made several significant discoveries, including the presence of ancient lakes and rivers on Mars.

Artemis Program

In 2019, NASA announced the Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon by 2024. The program, which is named after the Greek goddess of the hunt, also aims to establish a sustainable presence on the lunar surface and to use the Moon as a stepping stone for further human exploration of the solar system.

The Artemis program includes several key components, such as the development of a new lunar lander, the creation of a lunar Gateway, and the conduct of several uncrewed and crewed missions to the Moon. The program also aims to include the first woman and the next man on the Moon.

NASA's Future Plans

Looking ahead, NASA has several ambitious plans and projects in the works. Some of the agency's future plans include:

Mars Sample Return

NASA plans to launch a Mars sample return mission in the late 2020s, which will retrieve samples from the Martian surface and return them to Earth for study.

Europa Clipper

NASA is currently developing the Europa Clipper mission, which will explore Jupiter's icy moon Europa and search for signs of life.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)|A Legacy of Exploration and Discovery