Growth and Development

by Sultan Muhammad

Introduction

Growth and development is the over all development of a person, physical and mental development. The process of development goes altogether in all fields, cognitive development, physical development, emotional development. When a child born it goes through different stages;

• Childhood stage
• Boyhood stage
• Mature puberty
• Adulthood stage

During all these stages child complete it growth and development and become adult.

Growth

From the very start of human life, changes start take place in human body. This physical change is known as growth. Growth is also quantitative in measure and could be seen in structural and physiological changes in the body.

The growth process is slow in nature and organized. These changes could be seen in the shape of height and weight, this phenomenon of changes in human body is called growth.

Development

With the growth process, there is another process which is called development, take place in the human body. This process is little different from growth process. With the time when changes take place in human body, human start shown other body functions, for example moving, crawl and after some time learn to stand and walk.

“Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly, predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience” E.B. Hurlock.

The change in body functions, due to the changes in structure of body parts is called development.

Different parts of growth and development

1. Physical growth and development

2. Social growth and development

3. Emotional development

4. Mental development

1. Physical growth and development

It includes changes in weight and height and growth in different body parts, with the passage of time, it mainly depend on the diet and environmental condition as well as the home condition. A rich diet will help in better growth and development of a child.

2. Social growth and development

Social growth and development is very necessary because it helps the child to understand various norms and values and became a better person of the society.

3. Emotional development

Child by birth has different natural emotions and instincts and with the time some instincts and emotions disappear while with the time some new emotion and instincts manifest, according to psychologist, emotion are related to physical changes.

Environment also plays a vital role in the development of these emotions. And with the time it became the part of human personality.

4. Mental development

In the early stages the ideas of children are vague and unclear, with time gradually, these refined. It help the child to use his senses and develop the capacity to think and understand. It impel the growth in his metal ability, by the time when child reaches puberty his intelligence, level can be defined.

The metal growth of a child starts from the very first day of his life when he born and effect his whole life.

Stages of social, physical, emotional and mental development

1. childhood (till 4 years)
2. boyhood stage ( five to ten years)
3. pre mature puberty ( to 15 year)
4. adulthood stage (after 15 year)

Childhood stage

Early childhood is the time of a tremendous growth and development across all areas. The new born baby grows into a young person who can take care of his body with the help of other. It is the primary stage in which different skill development take place. This stage stays up to the age of four to five years and According to some expert up to eight year.

Physical development childhood stage

At the time of birth male child is born up to 7,5 pound and girl up to 7 pound. The height is above 52 centimetres. With the passage of time development is quite fast. Physically, in this stage up to three years a child doubles in weight and height. Children totally depend on others in this stage

Social Development in this stage

In this stage, the children like parents, siblings, home and toys. The child understands itself but is dependent on others.

Emotional development

At this stage child had inherent emotions. This stage is considered very important for the personality’s development. It is the foundation for the child building personality.

Mental Development

Each child has inherent intelligence; they feel happy when they satisfy. They do every thing what give them happiness regardless the consequences of their actions

Boyhood stage (up to 10 years)

This period is from five to ten years,

Physical development, in the boyhood stage physical development is comparatively slower than childhood stage. Child grows at the rate of two inches per anum, especially the child grows in height in this stage.

Social development

In this stage children love to play games, children learn to adjust it self in environment and make new friends, they feel happy to participate in activities in home with parents

Emotional development

This stage is also very important in the life of a child, In this stage children are very emotional and keen to learn. In this stage they understand their relation with the other members of the society and relatives.

Mental development

At this stage up to the age six years and according to some psychologist at the age of eight years the brain complete and all five senses are developed and used. At this stage the child should be given special attention and involved him in the learning base activities to develop his brain.

5. Adolescence stage (10 to 15 year)

Adolescence is a Latin word, which derived from the word “adolescere” meaning to grow up, or grow to maturity. This period is from 10 to 15 years of age, it is a period of life between the age of child hood and adulthood

The adolescent stage is another period of accelerated growth. Individual can grow up to four inches, and increase in weight up to ten pounds per year. At the end of this stage, individuals may gain seven to nine inches in height and forty to forty five pounds in weight.

Physical Growth and Development

This stage is slow until the age of 12 years, after 12 years it speed up till the age of 15 years, in this stage individual increase in height and weight, girls growth in reproductive organs and voice became mature and start of periods, boys grow moustaches

Social development

Increase in friends in this stage, the child is attractive to opposite sex and like to here stories of heroes and fore fathers

Emotional development

This stage bring strange feeling to them, many new emotion manifested and children became very touchy, at this stage they like to talk to opposite sex, sexual desires in this stage are very power full. In this stage careful guidance of an adult is required, to help them in understanding and controlling these emotions

Mental development

Child is very suspicious about every one, he want to know about every thing, weakness in self confidence and like to talks to adults and behave like adults and very moody. At this stage child develop self willpower and determination

Adulthood age (after 15 years)

This stage begins after the age of fifteen years, this is the stage where the child crosses the stage of childhood to manhood, and became an adult. Enter in to practical life and begin facing the challenges of life, get married and starts his own family.

Physical development

Physical development is very slow at this stage and stop after a certain age, and after that it decline with the passage of time

Social Development

Get married, have children of their own and take responsibilities and become a active member of the society

Emotional development

Lack of coordination between mental and physical maturity in this stage

Mental development

Intelligence until the age of 6 to 8 years and maintain standard after that, after the age of 60 years, the stage of decline come in intelligence.

Writing Research Report

by Sultan Muhammad

Research report writing is complex procedure, it require guidance and skills to follow the rules of research report writing. The aim is to write about your research topic clearly so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research.

The Structure

A research report most contain following sections; preliminary, body and supplementary. Each of these main parts consists of a number of sections

Preliminary Material

• Title of report
• Table of Contents (optional)
• Abstract / Synopsis

Body of the Report

• Introduction
• Literature Review (some times part of Introduction)
• Methodology
• Statement of the report (what you want to do)
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendations

Supplementary material

• Appendices
• References

Steps involved in research report writing

1. Analyze your task, what are expectations from your research work. Keep in mind the following questions when evaluate the task

* The purpose of your report

· Target population

* Limitation of your study

· Out line your plan

· Collection of data

· Keep record of your visits and material

· Keep record of books for References

Preliminary Material

Title of report

• Give crystal clear information of your research topic to the reader. It should be no longer than one sentence

• Table of contents:

List of all chapters, headings, sub heading and tables/graphs and give them page numbers

Abstract

• it give a very brief overview of the whole report. The abstract should be as brief as possible, not more than one informative paragraph

it give sufficient information to the reader about the report, including what the investigation has found.

Body of report

Introduction:

Introduction gives the background information and include a brief review of the relevant literature.what is the importance of the study.

Literature Review

Review of literature related to your topic is the most important part of your research report; the researcher should search already available data on the topic. In the light of literature review the researcher may structure his findings.

Methodology

Methodology means the method the researcher used in his research; what to do and how to do

• Usually written in passive voice
• written in past tense
• Give proper reference of material from other sources.
• Relevant diagrams, graphs and charts.

Results

Here the researcher give the findings of his research with out any interpretation

Discussion

Here researcher discusses the relevance of his results and findings in the light of literature review and purpose of statement.

Conclusion

Here the researcher draws the conclusion of his study, summaries the significant of his results, findings and highlight limitation of the study

Recommendations

In this section researcher include his suggestions and recommendation in the light of his finding for the purpose of improvement.

Supplementary material

References or Bibliography

This section includes references of the related material referred in the report in APA or MLA style. For examples;

Bell, P. (1970). Basic teaching for slow learners. London: Muller.

Hughes, J. (1973). The Slow Learner in Your Class (Nelson's Teacher Texts). london: Cengage Learning Australia.

Appendices

Any other extra information the researcher wants to add in his report. only the raw data should be presented in an Appendix

Problems of School Teachers & Students in Pakistan

SULTAN MUHAMMAD KHAN

Introduction.

Education is the backbone in the development of any nation. It is a fact that countries that have an effective system of education also happen to be the leaders of the world, both socially and economically. In short it is education, which can turn the population of any country from a burden to human resource.

The key to development is good education system, which is solely based on negligible problems for both the teachers and the students. In this article we will be discussing the problems being faced by both the Teachers and Students in our education system.

Problems of teachers.

It is a fact that Pakistan is one of those very few countries where the system of education has constantly eroded since independence. The situation at present is so worst that the government has officially declared our system of education to be almost collapsing and is employing all possible ways and means on emergency basis for the speedy uplift of our educational system.

Till this day all the studies has shown that with the passage of time the problems being faced by both the teachers and students multiplied. During this period no one paid any attention to them and instead wasted almost all the energies and resources on improvement of buildings and changes in curriculum. One of the key indicator of the above is the fact that since independence a lot of socially un-acceptable professions had achieved social acceptance, whereas it teachers who have lost their social acceptance.

1. Respect in Society. The first and foremost factor in choosing a profession anywhere is the respect that it gives to a person who joins it. As already touched above teaching is constantly loosing its respect. The situation is so bad today that qualified people opt for other professions and majority of persons joining this profession are of quit a low caliber.

2. Financial problems. The other most important factor, which in majority of the cases is as important as social respect that a profession commands is the financial benefits which a person, derives from it. The salary of our teacher is quite meager and is not enough to lead a decent life and support a healthy family. Dues to this majority of teachers resort to a number of ways and means to supplement their income. This not only diverts the attention of the teacher but also brings a bad name to this once the most respected profession. If it is ensured that a teacher gets enough financial benefits with which he can lead a decent life, he will then be in a position to invest all his energies in doing justice to his profession.

3. Frequent Transfers between schools. It has been observed that majority of the teachers are not only posted away from the cities/villages they belong to but are also subjected to very frequent transfers. It is a human nature that it takes time to accustom to any new environment. By posting teachers away from their native cities/villages and then subjecting them to frequent transfers, they never get accustomed to the schools & students, which greatly diminishes their productivity. This also has another angle i.e. the students too needs time to get to know a teacher and it is only when they understand each other they can communicate positively.

Frequent transfers also have a negative effect on the family life of teachers especially the education of their children.

4. Unavailability of Accommodation: Accommodation is a major irritant in the sound family life of teachers. Due to absence of official accommodation majority of the time of a teacher is spent in finding an accommodation, which he can afford. It has been observed that when finally a teacher finds an accommodation his next transfer is almost due. This keep the teacher greatly disturbed, normally they are away from their families most of the time. According to teachers this is one of the major factors why the children of teachers on the average are poor in their studies.

5. Transportation. Transportation is related to accommodation. It has been seen that in majority of the cases teachers reside at distance from the schools. Also they can afford decent transport due to which they are reported to come late and leave as early as possible. Due to recent hike in transportation costs it is reported that the cases of unreported absence from duty has also become very common.

6. Training and education qualification: It is a fact that once teachers are inducted in our education system they are seldom provided any training of substance. Due to lack of training they are not aware of challenges of the future and hence are unable to prepare their students to play their due role.

7. Political and social problems: Since independence all the institutions of our society have become very politicized. Teaching profession is no exception to this. Majority of the induction is on political grounds. A teacher inducted through this system is not liable to merit but to the political interest of the political force that has inducted the person and so commits all kinds of blunders to favor them. The negative impact of politics is so great that who ever wants to uphold merit is punished severely.

8. Teacher headmaster relation: As already discussed above that the negative influence of politics in education is deep rooted. Due to this factor only those persons who work for the political forces get to the top. Persons who reach to the top using their political influences pay no attention to developing cordial relations with their staff. Good relations of headmaster and his teachers are very important in improving the over-all performance teachers.

9. Grouping in school. As already discussed above our educational institutions are greatly infected with negative politics. The number of groups within an educational institution is equivalent to the number of political parties in our country. These groups fight among themselves the way our politicians fight on the national scene due to which they are never able to play their positive role. This in majority of cases engulf the student community too, which makes things worst.

10. Over Crowded Classrooms: Due to lack of realistic investment in our educational institutions since independence, the pressure on schools has increased many folds. On the average a single teacher teaches at least sixty students in a classroom which was basically meant for thirty students. The scene of multiple classes being taught in a single room by a single teacher is very common in our primary schools. It should be kept in mind that it is here that students require maximum personal attention. In our educational system mostly the teacher is unable to recognize his student, the question of personal attention cannot even be imagined.

11. Communication problem: Our system of education lacks communication between teaching staff, parents, headmasters, and the concerned higher authorities. Due to this they are unable to coordinate and make consolidated efforts for the uplift of the educational system and end-up blaming each other.

12. Medium of instruction: Due the existence of multi-medium of instruction as well as ever changing medium of instruction confuses both the giver and the recipient. The absence of proper orientation confuses the teacher so greatly that they lose interest in their profession. What can be expected from a teacher who has lost his interest?

13. Inefficient and insufficient teachers. As already discussed above majority of our teachers are inducted through political connections who lack ability to teach. On top of this they are never provided training, which can transform them into good teachers. These coupled with the fact that they are made to face an overcrowded classroom, which even a qualified teacher cannot face, makes a nightmare of the whole situation. As already discussed in majority of our primary schools, a single teacher not only teaches multiple classes under a tree or in a shabby room but also administers/ manages the school too. In case the teacher goes on leave the school is closed till the teacher returns or another teacher is posted.

14. Absence of qualitative teacher training programs: As already discussed once a teacher is inducted he seldom goes through any training. In case a teacher is fortunate enough to go for training it never ever is of any quality and hence there exists no grooming facility for a teacher.

15. Absence of proper physical facilities and educational instruments and appliances. In order to impart proper education a teacher requires a number of aides to achieve this goal. These include a variety of audio visual aids also known as teaching kits etc. In the absence of these aids a teacher fails to explain all the concepts theoretically and mostly ends-up confusing the students.

16. Absence of maintenance of pupils` cumulative record cards: Due to lack of facilities, training of teachers and burden of work our teachers never maintain cumulative record cards. Their absence on the one hand makes it difficult for the school staff to analyze a student and on the other hand each and every teacher assesses a student himself, which at times is misleading too.

17. Lack of co-ordination among schools of the same type or with other school: Where their exists no coordination inside a school, how can coordination among schools be imagined. Due to this lack of coordination, discussion of mutual problems never takes place and hence no collective and positive measures can be taken towards the resolution of these problems.

18. Response from different Govt of Pakistan’s line agencies: It has also been observed that different line agencies of the Govt. of Pakistan such as Education Department, WAPDA, C&W, District Administration etc. whose job is to supplement the efforts of school teachers has failed to respond to the genuine needs of the school teachers. Since these agencies do not take them seriously due to which the teachers have stopped to approach them, hence a door towards improvement has also been closed almost permanently.

Problems Of Students:

In Pakistan the problems being faced by students are as numerous as that being faced by teachers if not more. These mainly includes the following:

1. Lack of guidance. Our student is the most unguided student in the world. Neither the parent due to their ignorance nor the teachers due to lack of professionalism are able to guide them. Lack of guidance is very serious problem which student face in our country; in Pakistan education maximum parents are uneducated so they can’t guide their children. Due to which they cant chose proper subject and proper filed as well as they cant get good marks because no can help them in home work. While on other side those students who have proper guidance they get good marks.

2. Poverty and Financial problem. Pakistan is an underdeveloped nation, majority of our people are living on the poverty line who can barely make their both ends meet. They cannot afford even the negligible fees being charged in the government institutions, let alone the books and uniforms for which they are to pay from their own pockets. Majority of our young ones are child labor, they indulge in child labor not only to feed them selves but to support their families too.

3. Lack of Trained teachers: There are no trained teachers in our education system. The purpose of early/primary education is to induce in to the students an interest of education but children are exposed to untrained teachers in their early stage of education they lose interest in education and results in early dropouts.

4. Lack of proper learning aids and laborites. Our schools are devoid of proper laborites and learning aids. Due to this students are bombarded with theoretical concepts, which in the absence of the required audiovisual learning aids and laboratories confuses the students. As a result of this the students lose their interest in education after which either they drop out or rely on practices like cheating, bribing teachers etc.

5. Fear complex

To camouflage their inability teachers grow a fence of fear around them selves. They resort to indiscriminate punishments resultantly some of the students run away from schools and the rest become docile with no interest in education but to spend time aimlessly.

6. Psychological problems. Students due to high expectations of their families and absence of guidance for both the parents and students experience a lot of psychological stress, which has a retarding effect on their growth.

8. Transfer of teachers. Frequent transfer of teachers leaves no room for the development of mutual understanding and respect for each other. The moment they start to understand each other, the teacher is transferred. Once this process is repeated a few times with a student, the student closes himself to teachers in future.

9. Socio-economic condition. Due to bad socio-economic conditions of majority of our students they are not very attentive to what is being imparted to them and neither can they practice it at homes.

10. Biased and traditional measures for evaluation of pupil: Students are evaluated in our institutions not on the basis of their abilities but on the basis of their class. This disheartens students who have weak financial/social backgrounds. Also our examination system evaluates students not on the basis of their cognitive abilities but is more of a rote memory test. All this is simply due to the fact that modern evaluation techniques are not applied.

11. Absence of appropriate textbooks. Students are subjected to inappropriate textbooks, which in the absence of appropriate reference books makes the situation worst. School libraries are filled with irrelevant books majority of which being story books, which too are kept under lock & key out of the reach of students.

12. Stress. Students are physically stressed due to the fact that they start early in the morning and walk long distances to schools, on reaching schools they are subjected to physical punishments and when they return they are given substantial amount of homework for which they have no guidance. I addition to this they are short of time as they have to take care of different home related chores such as feeding cattle, bringing fodder etc.

13. Loneliness. Due to mental stress and too much work students have no time to develop social relations and the feeling of loneliness overtakes them. This leads to depression and mental sickness, which is taken by society as being under the influence of spirits. To cure this they are taken to different shrines which majority of times results into partial mental disability.

14. Communication problem: Their exists a lot of communication gaps between students, teachers and parents. Due to this gap neither the teachers nor the parents come to understand the students, resultantly they enforce upon them their wishes. This enforcement develops a rebellious or a docile nature in the students, which retard the positive abilities.

15. Medium of instruction: Our students are subjected to very frequent changes in the medium of instruction. In the process the best they can do is to learn to read one of the languages. Majority is unable to understand what is written in the text. They memorize the text and recopy it in examination, which kills the basic aim of education.

16. Classroom environment: The class rooms are over-crowded due to which the students are unable to take personal attention of the teacher resultantly they are unable to communicate to the teacher their problems, resultantly their problems never get resolved.

17. Lack of facilities for Co-circular activities: Their exists no facilities for co-curricular activities of the students. Very few schools have playing grounds, which due to wrong planing of the school management are very overcrowded in school breaks (since the whole school is given a break at the same time) provide no space for any kind of sport. Also there are no provisions for sport goods due to which children run aimlessly in school breaks. Which inculcates in them an aimless attitude/behavior.

18. Drug addiction. Due to non-serious attitude of the teachers and school management students at a very early age get exposed to menaces like smoking and use of snuff, which according to psychologists are a gateway to more serious additions such as hash and heroin. It has also been observed that it is in fact the teachers and parents of the students who use these things openly in front of students and hence work as a role models for students on their way to getting into the habit of smoking and use of snuff.

Reference:

01. TEACHER EDUCATION MODERN TRENDS by MOHIT CHAKRABARTI

Leadership in Islamic Perspective

Leadership in the Islamic Perspective Regarding our Culture

by Sultan Muhammad

Introduction

Leadership is the ability of a person to lead a group of people to achieve a given task, Leadership is an inspiration for the people, and those people are leaders who inspire others. Leaders are present around us, we can see them in every day life, when some one among them attain the level where he can demonstrate and exercise his ability for the common purpose, they excel and then we recognise them as a leader

Objective of the study

Define leader ship concept in Islam

Explore the concept of Islamic leadership in our culture

Islamic Leadership

Mohammad (peace be upon him) is the greatest leader of world, in the history of mankind there is no other person who can reach to his level or status. He is model for all humanity, how to lead the people, if we read all the modern books about leadership today, we will see the qualities of Mohammad (peace be upon him) in these books. How he guide his followers, how he inspire the people of Arab at that time. Imagine about the people of Arab at that moment, most of them were illiterate and rigid and ready to kill each other for nothing, buried alive baby girls when born in their family.

Mohammad (peace be upon him) motivated those people and changed them completely, from negative to positive and those were the Arab who later on ruled half of the world for a long time

Morshed Abul Ala defines Islamic leader ship” A person or a group that will lead humanity from the brink of destruction to the way of Allah the Almighty”

To understand the model of Islamic leadership, examine the life of our beloved prophet and his companion as Leaders and the qualities they have;

Inspired the people

Love and kindness for his follower.

Built relationship between them like brothers

Trust them and give them the lesson of trust and Build trust between them

Give respect to the people

Create the environment of Confidence between them

Always open to suggestion

Acceptable as a leader

Ready to sacrifice his own interest for the sack of others

Understand the responsibilities

Open-minded

Ability of quick decision making

To understand the problem of the people

Communication skills

Planning

Organizing ( utilizing the resources to reach the target )

Implementing of the plan

Dynamic ready to lead every time

Islamic leader is the man of words

Leadership is all about vision , can see there, where no other can see

Difference between Islamic and secular leadership

• The aim of Secular leadership's is self-establishment. While Islamic Leadership's target the community, to achieve Jannatul Firdaws (Highest position in Paradise)
• Secular leaderships work for pleasure and respect boss. Islamic Leaderships work for the pleasure of Allah.

Leadership problem in Pakistan is not new, from the very begging of Pakistan after the death of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first governor general of Pakistan. We had never found a sincere leader who addresses the real problems of Pakistan and to lead the people of Pakistan. Due to these reason Pakistani people are still looking for good leader who can solve their problems and lead them on the path of development and prosperity. Every time when a new government comes into power, people see them with the hope that they would take real steps and take the country to a new phase. But they never find the leader who has the courage to fight with the corrupt establishment, who could make a real team from the people of Pakistan.

The questions arise, where the problem lays, why we are not creating great and an honest leader, who can lead us? The answers to these questions can be here some where in our society, there is no doubt that we have great leader all round us, but the problem is, we are not recognising them, it is due to lack of education in our country, the lack of awareness on the part of the people. The majority of Pakistani people could not read newspaper, they did not know the people, who they are sending to the assemblies, those are maximum corrupt people and they have no character.

It is because, we ignore the basic philosophy of Islam, that tell us to select a honest person to lead you to the right direction, to lead you in the prayers and other walks of life, Islam has given us great models in leadership after Mohammad (peace be upon him) in every century.

It is the duty of teachers in Pakistan to create awareness in the students about the teachings of Islam and to create leadership and refine the student and polish their leadership qualities, it is also the responsibility of a teacher to become a reformer and educate the people around him, to select honest and educated people for their representation in every walk of life, the people who know the values of Islam and admire them,

For this purpose we need leaders in schools and colleges, who train young mind to right direction, who spread the light of knowledge in the darkness.

References

Abul Ala, . (n.d.). Principles of Islamic Leadership. Retrieved June 12, 2008, from http://www.youngmuslims.ca/articles/display.asp?ID=26.

Ahmed, A. (1987). Pakistan Society: Islam, Ethnicity and Leadership in South Asia. New York: Oxford University Press, USA.

Bangash, Z. (2001). Concepts of Leader and Leadership in Islam, The. New York: Crescent Publications.

Floral Diversity

Preliminary Results on the Impact of the Nomadic Grazing on Floral Diversity in Miandam, Swat-Pakistan

Ashiq Ahmad Khan and Syed Kamran Hussain

1. Introduction

Miandam is located in the north east of district Swat, lies between 34^o 34′ to 35^o - 07′ N latitudes and 72^o - 36′ to 73^o - 35′ E longitudes in the Hindu Kush mountain range. Miandam valley is a summer resort about 56 km from Saidu Sharif, the capital of Swat. The elevation of the valley ranges from 1200 m to 3660 m. The valley comprises of 11 big villages and 15 small hamlets with a population of about 20,000. The forest of the Miandam valley is a fundamental and potentially sustainable source of many services including economically important medicinal plants. One of the studies reveals that there are 190 plant species, identified so far in Miandam. Out of these 179 are used for the treatment of various health problems ^[1]. As else where in the forest area, Miandam is also facing the problem of overgrazing and deforestation. The basic reason of deforestation is commercial harvesting. This year 2.6 million cft timber has been extracted from the forest while the illegal and unrecorded extraction is much more.

Due to low level of education and life standard combined with lack of information regarding health and hygiene, people of the valley are suffering from different diseases especially women and children. They depend only on one primary Health center, which is not sufficient for a total of 150 sq km area. Required equipments and medicines are also not available in the said center. The nearest hospital is situated 56 km away, and not in the access of poor local people. Previously people of the valley were relying on herbal remedies as a principal means of preventing and curing illnesses. Beside this collection of medicinal plants from the forest area provides employment and fetches earnings to the poor local people. It has been estimated that almost 3000 people are earning 25% of their total income from the collection and sale of the plants ^[1]. However, these resources, and local knowledge of these, are being threatened by nomadic grazers. Each year nomads carry more than 40,000 goats to the high altitude of pastures passing and browsing through the young forest crop and shrubs throughout. As per the existing traditions, they have to pay a tax (sum of US $ 85 to 120) to the owners, called "Qalang” for their stay in the pastures. During their stay, in addition to grazing their animals, each nomad collect enormous amount of medicinal plants worth of US $ 450, but the owners of the pastures are not aware of such losses. Since 2000, some of the forest owners put a ban on the nomadic grazers on their land. It has been observed that the area where the nomadic grazing has stopped, showing better vegetation cover, improvement in medicinal plants diversity and good regeneration of pine species.

Thus, first there is an urgent need to study the difference between vegetation cover, plant diversity and regeneration status under grazing and controlled grazing lands. The concluded results will be a good tool for an extension worker to provide awareness to the forest owners about economic importance of their Pastures and adverse effect of nomadic grazing on it.

.

2. Review of Literature

Grazing in the grasslands has played a key role in changing the botanical composition, which, however, varies with the type of grass cover, its palatability etc. Overgrazing represent the most obvious impact on the native biodiversity of grasslands. As overgrazing causes retrogression, stimulates growth of weeds and loss of diversity. In Assam overgrazing reduces the tall grass cover to tufted grass type to Chrysopogon aciculatus and Imperata cyclindrica ^[4].

Livestock impact on biodiversity through trampling and removal of biomass, alteration of species composition through selective consumption and changed inter-plant competition. Changes in grazing intensity and selectivity will inevitably change biodiversity; under grazing and overgrazing can both have negative effects, but overgrazing by livestock is increasingly problematic ^[9].

Over-grazing has resulted in land erosion, formation of boggy areas and reduction in plant diversity. The area of natural pasture land has declined from 1.4 million ha in 1940 to 808,000 ha today, and remaining areas have been degraded and have become dominated by rocks (87%), scrub (25%), and inedible (74%) or poisonous plants (47%), while diversity has declined. For example, while between 70 and 80 plant species are normally supported by steppe systems, the number of species found after intensive over-grazing drops to around 15 ^[10].

Grazing animal may exert beneficial or mutual influences on the vegetations for their own good but on the other hand, large concentration of them often have harmful effects on the plants because of selectivity and over grazing. Quantifying the impact of livestock grazing on natural communities (forages) has become a major issue in the management of rangelands especially where the grazing is very widespread and its impacts may be in conflict with conserving biodiversity ^[5].

According to Lamprey (1979) Grazing is among the important agents, which influence the distribution of some vegetation types. In most rangeland ecosystems, grazing, browsing and other factors such as fire and climate contribute to vegetation change. Grazing animals influence species composition, change in biomass and distribution of biodiversity ^[8].

According to Pratt and Gwynne, (1997) Overgrazing reduces the ground cover vegetation, plant diversity and productivity. The impact of grazing on rangeland vegetation depends on three factors: (a) the type of herbivores (grazers and browsers) (b) Number and type of animals utilizing an area (c) Distribution of use in time and space

3. Methodology

A line transect survey technique was adopted in accordance with the popular and locality specific procedures of Akbar (2000), Kent and Coker (1995) and Cox (1967). For comparative assessment, data were collected from 2 sites, one; that is protected by the locals from nomadic grazing, while, other that is open to grazing.

Before data collection, a reconnaissance survey was conducted to make sure that all other factors like Aspect, Altitude and Slope remain constant in both the sites; the only variable is grazing pressure. Data were collected from two different sites through different techniques:

ransect walk to ascertain total number of plant species available in each site along the transect

Sample Plot (Quadrate of 5 X 5 M) to collect detailed information about the 10 selected species, which are economically important.

Sample plots (Quadrate of 5x5m size) in each site were taken at uniform intervals along continuous transects. The plots were taken on main transect and on rows laid in four directions from a systematically selected point. In general, the plots were approached along the transect walking upstream on a track and from their lower positions, across the slopes on rows.

The first plot was fixed in the start of the track. From the fixed point on the transect, after every 200 meters (300 steps), to both right and left ridges on the determined angles, quadrates or sample plots of 5x5m were laid. Proceedings ahead on transect upstream another quadrate after 300m was taken. The same process was repeated for taking sample plots on the rows on left and right. In this way the whole site was sampled.

The number of plants of each species, average phenological stage of the plants, general habitat, altitude and aspect of the plot were recorded on a Performa. This was decided well before starting the counting of plants, and practiced throughout, that all those individual plants whose roots were inside or beneath the quadrate line, irrespective of the place of their shoots, were counted. Similarly, in certain species with rhizomes and bunches, forming compact inseparable clusters having difficulty in defining a single individual, the entire bunch or patch was counted as one individual.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Topography of the Area

The topography of both sites i.e. protected and unprotected from grazing, is rugged with slopes very steep to precipitous, between 60 to 80 %. Both sites occupy predominantly the northern aspect of the main mountain ridge running in north-east direction. The altitude varies between 1,850 to 2200 m in both the sites. All the three main factors including aspect, slope and altitude that influence the vegetation pattern in an area are (more or less) the same. It could be infer that any change in the vegetation density/diversity will be the impact of different grazing pressure in both the sites.

4.2. Floral Diversity

The study revealed that 37 and 23 medicinal plants species were found in the protected and unprotected site respectively, during the month of April, 2007. In August, 2007 after the monsoon, 33 MP’s species were found in unprotected site, while 78 species were recorded from the site that has been banned for nomadic grazing since 2000. Table 1 & 2 showing name of species, recorded from both the sites.

Table-1 Protected from Nomadic Grazing

S. No	Scientific Name	S. No	Scientific Name	S. No	Scientific Name
1	Acorus calamus	27	Cynodon dactylon	53	Paeonia emodi Wall.
2	Aconitum violaceum	28	Cynoglossum lanceolatum	54	Plantago lanceolata L.
3	Adiantum capillus-veneris L.	29	Dryopteris jaxtaposta christ.	55	Plantago major
4	Adiantum venustum	30	Diospyros lotus	56	Podophyllum emodi Wall.
5	Aesculus indica Coleb. ex Wall.	31	Elaegnus umbellate	57	Podophyllum hexandrum Royle,
6	Allium sativum	32	Fagonia arabica Linn.	58	Primula denticulata Sm.
7	Ajuga bracteosa Benth.	33	Ficus palmate	59	Rubia cordifolia Hochst. ex A. Rich.
8	Amaranthus viridis	34	Fragaria vesica	60	Rumax hastatus
9	Arisaema flavum ( Forssk.) Schott	35	Fumaria indica Pugsley	61	Ricinus communis
10	Arisaema jacquemontii Blume,	36	Geranium wallichianum D. Don,	62	Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp.
11	Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.	37	Hedera nepalensis K. Koch,	63	Solanum nigrum L.
12	Artimisia brevifolia Wall.	38	Hypericum heterantha	64	Stachyus parviflora Benth.
13	Artimisia vulgaris L.	39	Hypericum perforatum Linn.	65	Salvia moorcorftiana
14	Asparagus adsendens	40	Indegofera trifoliata	66	Swartia elata
15	Avena sativa	41	Isodon rugosus	67	Silene uugaris
16	Berberis lycium Royle.	42	Lanthyrus aphaca	68	Sonchus asper
17	Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.	43	Launea procumbens	69	Sambacus wightina
18	Bistorta ampilexicaulis (D. Don) Greene	44	Male fern	70	Taxus buccata
19	Bunium persicum	45	Mentha longifolia	71	Taraxcicum officinale weber
20	Caltha alba Jacquem.	46	Mentha spicata L.	72	Trachysepermum ammi
21	Celtis australis	47	Micromeria biflora	73	Urtica diotica
22	Caralluma edulis Benth. ex Hook. f.	48	Myrsine africana L	74	Valeriana jatamansi Jones.
23	Chenopodium album	49	Nepta govantiana	75	Valeriana wallichii DC.
24	Chamomilla recutita Rauschert.	50	Onosma hispidium	76	Verbena offcinalis L.
25	Chenopodium botrys L.	51	Otostagia limbata	77	Viola biflora L.
26	Corydalis govaniana Wall.	52	Oxalis corniculata	78	Viola serpens Wall.

Table-2 Open to Nomadic Grazing

S. No	Scientific Name	S. No	Scientific Name	S. No	Scientific Name
1	Acorus calamus	12	Corydalis govaniana Wall.	23	Corydalis govaniana Wall.
2	Adiantum venustum	13	Cynodon dactylon	24	Cynodon dactylon
3	Ajuga bracteosa Benth.	14	Cynoglossum lanceolatum	25	Cynoglossum lanceolatum
4	Arisaema jacquemontii Blume,	15	Fragaria vesica	26	Fragaria vesica
5	Artimisia vulgaris L.	16	Geranium wallichianum D. Don,	27	Geranium wallichianum D. Don,
6	Berberis lycium Royle.	17	Hedera nepalensis K. Koch,	28	Hedera nepalensis K. Koch,
7	Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.	18	Hypericum heterantha	29	Hypericum heterantha
8	Bistorta ampilexicaulis (D. Don) Greene	19	Indegofera trifoliata	30	Indegofera trifoliata
9	Caltha alba Jacquem.	20	Isodon rugosus	31	Isodon rugosus
10	Cannabis sativa	21	Male fern	32	Male fern
11	Chenopodium album	22	Mentha spicata L.	33	Mentha spicata L.

4.3. Economically Important/Target species

One of the study revealed that there are 190 plant species, identified so far in Miandam, of which 179 are used for the treatment of various health problems ^[1]. But some are economically very important because pharmaceutical industries need those herbs in an abundant. Grater demand of herbal industries for those species has threatened their occurrence and abundance. Species that have greater values include Bistorta ampilexicaulis, Morchella esculenta, Valeriana wallichii, Adiantum venustum, Viola biflora, Bergenia ciliata, Geranium wallichianum, Berberis lycium, Podophyllum emodi, and Paeonia emodi. Out of the 10 plant species, 4 are nationally endangered, (Red Data Book of IUCN threatened species 1998).Table 3 showing economic importance of those 10 selected species.

Table-3. Medicinal Plants of Miandam Valley: Prices & Quantities harvested

Botanical Name	Prices (Rs/kg) for:			Qty Extracted (kg/yr)
	Collector	Retailer	Customer
Bistorta ampilexicaulis	10	12	15	15,000
Morchella esculenta	7,000	10,000	14,000	300
Valeriana wallichii	60	100	130	20,000
Adiantum venustum	16	20	30	12,000
Viola biflora	180	280	450	10,000
Bergenia ciliata	10	20	30	1,000
Geranium wallichianum	40	60	100	1,000
Berberis lycium	80	150	300	100
Podophyllum emodi	75	100	170	100
Paeonia emodi	10	18	30	800

4.4. Density of the Target species

Density, which is the number of plants of particular specie per unit area, is essential to determine the population density. Hence total number of plants of individual specie in the quadrate was counted and extrapolation for the area of the site was applied. The study revealed that the average population density of the target species decreases upto 90% due to nomadic grazing, while two species, Paeonia emodi and Podophyllum emodi were completely vanished due to overgrazing. Table-4 shows density (# of plants/ha) of the target species in both sites.

Table-4 Density of the Target species in both sites

Species	Density (#/ha)		Reduce in %age
	Protected	Unprotected
Bistorta ampilexicaulis	53200	3900	92
Valeriana wallichii	2900	533	81
Adiantum venustum	37200	800	79
Viola biflora	13560	1100	91
Bergenia ciliata	240	133	45
Geranium wallichianum	12340	800	93
Berberis lycium	1000	300	70
Paeonia emodi Wall	920	0	No Found
Podophyllum emodi Wall.	320	0	No Found

Test the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in the population density of the target species in both the sites.

X1 (A) Density in protected site	X2 (B) Density in Unprotected Site	d = (A - B)	d2
53200	3900	49300	2.43E+09
2900	533	2367	5602689
37200	800	36400	1.32E+09
13560	1100	12460	1.55E+08
240	133	107	11449
12340	800	11540	1.33E+08
1000	300	700	490000
920	0	920	846400
320	0	320	102400
Total		∑d = 114114	∑d2 = 4.05E+09

N = 9

D = ∑d /N= 114114/9= 12679.3

S² = {∑ d² – (∑ d) ² / N} / N – 1

= 1/8 {4.05E+09 – (114114)² / 9} = 3.26E+08

S = 19026

t = (D – 0) / S/ √N = 6337.3

The tabulated value of ‘t’ for 8 degree of freedom (df) is 2.306 at significance level 0.05 while the calculated value of ‘t’ is 6337.3, which are much more than 2.306. Therefore null hypothesis of no difference is rejected. We infer that the density of target species in both the sites is differing significantly from one another.

4.5. Frequency of the Target species

Frequency is the occurrence and distribution of a particular plant in a particular site. A plant may have high density with low frequency when the plants generally occur in patches. This will indicate non uniform distribution on the site and any indiscriminate harvest can endanger the species on the site. The plant will also be vulnerable to the local adverse biotic and ecological collapses. Frequency of all the target species from grazed and no grazed land is given in Table-5.

Table-5 Frequency of the Target species in both sites

Species	Frequency in %
	Protected	Unprotected
Bistorta ampilexicaulis	100	75
Valeriana wallichii	70	30
Adiantum venustum	90	40
Viola biflora	100	50
Bergenia ciliata	20	10
Geranium wallichianum	80	40
Berberis lycium	50	40
Paeonia emodi Wall	50	0
Podophyllum emodi Wall.	30	0

Comparing the plants frequency of both, protected and unprotected sites shows that there is a clear relation between frequency and overgrazing. The study revealed that the sites banned for nomadic grazing showing uniform distribution of all the target species on the site. On the other hand in unprotected site, frequency occurrence of some of target species was restricted to the steep slops only. Maximum decrease in frequency was recorder in Valeriana wallichii followed by Viola biflora while Paeonia emodi and Podophyllum emodi were completely disappeared from the overgrazed site. The adverse impacts of overgrazing are severe more in terms of frequency than on density. Some plants may have low density with high frequency where the plants will have uniform distribution in a particular site. The harvest of such plants could be safe because of its occurrence throughout the site and the plant will not be threatened if some limits of harvest are imposed. Form the above one can infer that the impact of overgrazing on Valeriana wallichii is more severe as compare to Bistorta ampilexicaulis.

4.6. Overgrazing and Natural Regeneration of Pine Trees

During the survey, sapling of Pine trees was also counted in the quadrate while mother trees were calculated through full enumeration. It has been observed that overgrazing had negative impact on the natural regeneration of pine trees. Total number of plants recorded from protected site were 840 while those from unprotected were 66 saplings/ha. This could jointly be attributed to the presence of low number of mother trees, but this could not be regarded that much significant. According to Khattak et al, 1965, 24 mature trees/ha is required to established good regeneration in the moist temperate zone^[3], while during survey 27 mother trees/ha has been recorded from the unprotected site. From the above one can infer that the major contributing factor that signifies is the over grazing resulting in much reduced regeneration capability of the forest.

5. Conclusion

There is grate scope of utilizing medicinal plants for improving the livelihood of rural poor especially in the northern parts of Pakistan. Miandam is rich in floral diversity, particularly in medicinal plants. So far 190 plant species were recorded from the area in out of these 179 have medicinal value. However, these precious resources are facing a tremendous danger due to the nomadic grazing thus threatening their occurrence and abundance in its natural habitat.

Results of the study indicate that overgrazing represent the most obvious impact on the floral diversity. The areas which were opened to nomadic grazing shows a massive decline in their density, frequency and specie diversity. 33 species were only found in the unprotected site making a huge difference of 78 species in the site banned for nomadic grazing. Similarly 90 % decline is observed in the population density of MP’s from the area open to nomadic grazing. The effect of the nomadic grazing in term of the occurrence and distribution of the plants are more severe as it effects the uniform distribution of the plant species and any indiscriminate harvest can endanger the species like Paeonia emodi and Podophyllum emodi were completely disappeared from the overgrazed site.

The study concludes that nomadic grazing has resulted in the reduction of the floral diversity and this issue must be addressed on the priority bases. The areas which have diverse species of medicinal plants must be banned for the nomadic grazers.

References

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2. Akber, K.F. 2000. Urban corridors: the ecology of road side vegetation of Sahiwal city. Lead Pakistan Occasional paper No. 7. http://www.pakistan.lead.org/

3. Champion, H. G., K. Seth and G. M. Khattak. 1965. Forest types of Pakistan. PFI Peshawar.

4. Cox, W.G.1997. ; Laboratory manual of general ecology. WMC Brown Co. Dubuque, Iowa USA.

5. Landsbery J; James, C.D; Maconochie, J. and Nicholls, A.O.(2002). The relationship between species density and community biomass in grazed and ungrazed coastal meadows. Journal of applied ecology, 39: 427-444

6. Kent, M. and P. Coker. 1995. Vegetation description and analysis. John Wily and Sons

7. Shankarnarayan, K.A. 1977. Impact of overgrazing on the grassland. Annals of Arid Zone. 16: 349 - 359.

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9. http://www.cbd.int/programmes/areas/dryland/default.asp)

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